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educational psychology

answer

the study of learning and teaching.

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pedagogy

answer

the study of teaching and learning with applications to the instructional process. Also called instruction.

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intentionality

answer

doing this for a purpose; teachers who use intentionality plan their actions based on the outcomes they want to achieve.

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teacher efficacy

answer

the degree to which teachers feel that their own efforts determine the success of their students.

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critical thinking

answer

Evaluation of conclusions through logical and systematic examination of the problem, the evidence, and the solution.

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principle

answer

Explanation of the relationship between factors, such as the effects of alternative grading systems on student motivation.

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theory

answer

A set of principles that explains and relates certain phenomena.

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law

answer

principles that have been thoroughly tested and found to apply in a wide variety of situations.

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effective teaching

answer

research + common sense

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treatment

answer

A special program that is the subject of an experiment.

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variable

answer

Something that can have more than one value, in a experiment researchers try to limit these to only that being tested.

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experiment

answer

procedure used to test the effect of a treatment. Researchers can create special treatments and analyze their effects.

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random assignment

answer

Selection by chance into different treatment groups; intended to ensure equivalence of the groups.

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laboratory experiment

answer

Experiments in which researchers create a highly artificial, structured setting that exists for a brief period of time. Researchers can exert a very high degree of control over all the factors involved in the study.

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internal validity

answer

The degree to which an experiment's results can be attributed to the treatment in question, not to other factors.

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randomized field experiment

answer

Experiment conducted under realistic conditions in which individuals are assigned by chance to receive different practical treatments or programs.

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experimental group

answer

group that receives the treatment during an experiment.

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control group

answer

group that receives no special treatment during an experiment.

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external validity

answer

Degree to which results of an experiment can be applied to a real-life situations.

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single-case experiment

answer

experiment that studies a treatment's effect on one person or one group by contrasting behavior before, during, or after application of the treatment.

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correlational study

answer

research into the relationships between variables as they naturally occur.

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positive correlation

answer

relationship in which high levels of one variable correspond to high levels of another.

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negative correlation

answer

relationship in which high levels of one variable correspond to low levels of another.

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uncorrelated variables

answer

variables for which there is no relationship between high/low levels of one and high/low levels of the other.

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descriptive research

answer

research study aimed at identifying and gathering detailed information about something of interest.

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action research

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research carried out by educators in their own classrooms or schools.

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development

answer

orderly and lasting growth, adaptation, and change over the course of a lifetime.

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continuous theories of development

answer

theories based on the belief that human development progresses smoothly and gradually from infancy to adulthood.

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discontinuous theories of development

answer

theories describing human development as occurring through a fixed sequence of distinct, predictable stages governed by inborn factors.

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major stage theorists

answer

Piaget, Vygotsky, Erikson, and Kohlberg

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cognitive development

answer

Gradual, orderly changes by which mental processes become more complex and sophisticated.

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schemes

answer

mental patterns that guide behavior (Piaget)

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adaptation

answer

the process of adjusting schemes in response to the environment by means of assimilation and accommodation. (Piaget)

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assimilation

answer

understanding new experiences in terms of existing schemes. (Piaget)

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accommodation

answer

modifying existing schemes to fit new situations. (Piaget)

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equilibration

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the process of restoring balance between present understanding and new experiences. According to Piaget learning depends on this process.

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constructivism

answer

view of cognitive development that emphasizes the active role of learners in building their own understanding of reality. (Piaget's theory of development)

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sensorimotor stage

answer

Stage during which infants learn about their surroundings by using their senses and motor skills. (Piaget: birth to 2 years)

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reflexes

answer

inborn, automatic responses to stimuli (e.g. eye blinking in response to bright light).

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object permanence

answer

the fact that an object exists even if it is out of sight.

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preoperational stage

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Stage at which children learn to represent things in the mind. (Piaget: ages 2-7)

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conservation

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the concept that certain properties of an object (such as weight) remain the same regardless of changes in other properties (such as length).

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centration

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paying attention to only one aspect of an object or situation.

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reversibility

answer

the ability to perform a mental operation and then reverse one's thinking to return to the starting point.

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egocentric

answer

believing that everyone views the world as you do.

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concrete operational stage

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stage at which children develop the capacity for logical reasoning and understanding of conservation but can use these skills only in dealing with familiar situations. (Piaget: ages 7 to 11)

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inferred reality

answer

the meaning of stimuli in the context of relevant information.

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seriation

answer

arranging objects in sequential order according to one aspect, such as size, weight, or volume.

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transitivity

answer

a skill learning during the concrete operational stage (Piaget) of cognitive development in which individuals can mentally arrange and compare objects.

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class inclusion

answer

A skill learned during the concrete operational stage (Piaget) of cognitive development in which individuals can think simultaneously about a whole class of objects and about relationships among its subordinate classes.

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formal operational stage

answer

Stage at which one can deal abstractly with hypothetical situations and can reason logically. (Piaget: ages 11 to adulthood)

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developmentally appropriate education

answer

instruction felt to be adapted to the current developmental status of children (rather than to their age alone).

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sign systems

answer

symbols that cultures create to help people think, communicate and solve problems

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self-regulation

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the ability to think and solve problems without the help of others

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private speech

answer

children's self-talk, which guides their thinking and action; eventually internalized as inner speech.

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zone of proximal development

answer

Level of development immediately above a person's present level. (Vygotsky believed that this was where real learning took place)

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scaffolding

answer

support for learning and problem solving; might include clues, reminders, encouragement, breaking the problem down into steps, providing an example, or anything else that allows the student to grow in independence as a learner.

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psychosocial theory

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a set of principles that relates to social environment to psychological development (Erikson is viewed this way)

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psychosocial crisis

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According to Erikson, the set of critical issues that individuals must address as they pass through each of the eight life stages.

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heteronomous morality

answer

In Piaget's theory of moral development, the stage at which children think that rules are unchangeable and that breaking them leads to automatic punishment.

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autonomous morality

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In Piaget's theory of moral development, the stage at which a person understands that people make rules and that punishments are not automatic.

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moral dilemmas

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In Kohlberg's theory of moral reasoning, hypothetical situations that require a person to consider values or right and wrong.

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preconventional level of morality

answer

Stages 1 and 2 in Kohlberg's model of moral reasoning, in which individuals make moral judgements in their own interests.

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conventional level of morality

answer

Stages 3 & 4 of Kohlberg's model of moral reasoning, in which individuals make moral judgements in consideration of others.

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postconventional level of morality

answer

Stages 5 & 6 in Kohlberg's model of moral reasoning, in which individuals make moral judgments in realtion to abstract principles.

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small muscle development

answer

development of dexterity of the fine muscles of the hand. (early childhood)

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large muscle development

answer

development of motor skills such as running or throwing, which involve the limbs and large muscles. (early childhood)

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emergent literacy

answer

knowledge and skills relating to reading that children usually develop from experience with books and other print media before the beginning of formal reading instruction in school.

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prosocial behaviors

answer

actions that show respect and caring for others.

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solitary play

answer

play that occurs alone.

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parallel play

answer

Play in which children engage in the same activity side by side but with very little interaction or mutual influence.

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associative play

answer

play that is much like parallel play but with increased levels of interaction in the form of sharing, turn-taking, and general interest in what others are doing.

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cooperative play

answer

play in which children join together to create a common goal.

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readiness training

answer

instruction in the background skills and knowledge that prepare children for formal teaching later.

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compensatory preschool programs

answer

programs that are designed to prepare disadvantaged children for entry into kindergarten and first grade.

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early intervention program

answer

compensatory preschool programs that target very young children at the greatest risk of school failure.

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self-concept

answer

a person's perception of his or her own strengths, weaknesses, abilities, attitudes, and values.

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self-esteem

answer

the value of each of us places on our own characteristics, abilities, and behaviors.

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social comparison

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the process of comparing oneself to other to gather information and to evaluate and judge one's abilities, attitudes, and conduct.

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reflectivity

answer

the tendency to analyze oneself and one's own thoughts

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foreclosure

answer

an adolescent's premature establishment of an identity based on parental choices, not his or her own (Marcia)

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identity diffusion

answer

inability to develop a clear direction or sense of self (Marcia)

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moratorium

answer

experimentation with occupational and ideological choices without definite commitment. (Marcia)

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identity achievement

answer

a state of consolidation reflecting conscious, clear-cut decisions concerning occupation and ideology. (Marcia)

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trust vs. mistrust

answer

the goal of infancy is to develop a basic trust in the world. Birth to 18 months (Erikson)

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autonomy vs. doubt

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children at this stage have the dual desire to hold on and to let go. Overly restrictive and harsh parents can give children a sense of powerlessness and doubt in their abilities. 18 months to 3 years (Erikson)

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initiative vs. guilt

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during this period children's continually maturing motor and language skills permit them to be increasingly aggressive and vigorous in the explorations of bot their social and their physical environment. 3 to 6 years (Erikson)

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industry vs. inferiority

answer

success bring with it a sense of industry, a good feeling about oneself and one's abilities. 6 to 12 years (Erikson)

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identity vs. role confusion

answer

12 to 18 years (Erikson) "Who am I?" is the big question

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intimacy vs. isolation

answer

Young adulthood (Erikson) Learning how to share their life with another.

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generativity vs self-absorption

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middle adulthood (Erikson). the interest in establishing and guiding the next generation.

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integrity vs. despiar

answer

late adulthood (Erikson). people look back over their lifetime and come to the realization that one's life has been one's own responsibility. Despair occurs in those who regret the way they have led their lives.

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bilingual education

answer

instructional program for students who speak little or no English in which some instruction is provided in the native language

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english immersion

answer

students are taught primarily or entirely in English

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transitional bilingual education

answer

children are taught reading or other subjects in their native language for a few years and then transitioned to English

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paired bilingual education

answer

children are taught reading or other subjects in both their native language and English

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two-way bilingual education

answer

dual language models teach all students in both English and another language.

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content integration

answer

teachers' use of examples, data, and other information from a variety of cultures.

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knowledge construction

answer

helping students understand how the knowledge we take in is influence by our origins and points of view.

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prejudice reduction

answer

a critical goal of multicultural education; involves development of positive relationships and tolerant attitudes among students of different backgrounds.

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equity pedagogy

answer

teaching techniques that facilitate the academic success of students from different ethnic and social class groups.

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sex-role behavior

answer

socially approved behavior associated with one gender as opposed to the other.

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intelligence

answer

general aptitude for learning, often measured by the ability to deal with abstractions and to solve problems.

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intelligence quotient (IQ)

answer

an intelligence test score that for people of average intelligence should be near 100.

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multiple intelligences

answer

a person's eight separate abilities: logical/mathematical, linguistic, musical, naturalist, spatial, bodily/kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal. (Garner)

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aptitude-treatment interaction

answer

interaction of individual differences in learning with particular teaching methods.

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behavioral learning theories

answer

explanations of learning that emphasize observable changes in behavior.

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cognitive learning theories

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explanations of learning that focus on mental processes

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learning

answer

a change in an individual that results from experience.

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stimuli

answer

environmental conditions that activate the senses

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unconditioned stimulus

answer

a stimulus that naturally evokes a particular response

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neutral stimuli

answer

stimuli that have no effect on a particular response.

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conditioned stimulus

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a previously neutral stimulus that evokes a particular response after having been paired with an unconditioned stimulus.

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classical conditioning

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process of repeatedly associating a previously neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus in order to evoke a conditioned response. (Pavlov)

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operant conditioning

answer

the use of pleasant or unpleasant consequences to control the occurrence of behavior. (Skinner)

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Skinner box

answer

an apparatus developed by B.F. Skinner for observing animal behavior in experiments in operant conditioning.

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consequences

answer

pleasant or unpleasant conditions that follow behaviors and affect the frequency of future behaviors.

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reinforcer

answer

a pleasurable consequence that maintains or increases a behavior.

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primary reinforcer

answer

food, water, and other consequence that satisfies a basic need.

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secondary reinforcer

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a consequence that people learn to value through its association with a primary reinforcer.

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Premack Principle

answer

rule stating that enjoyable activities can be used to reinforce participation in less enjoyable activities

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punishment

answer

unpleasant consequences used to weaken behavior.

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presentation punishment

answer

an aversive stimulus following a behavior, used to decrease the chances that the behavior will occur again.

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removal punishment

answer

withdrawal of a pleasant consequence that is reinforcing a behavior, designed to decrease the chances that the behavior will recur.

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shaping

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teaching of a new skill or behavior by means of reinforcement for small steps toward the desired goal.

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extinction

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the weakening and eventual elimination of a learned behavior as reinforcement is withdrawn.

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extinction burst

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the increase in levels of a behavior in the early stages of extinction.

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schedule of reinforcement

answer

the frequency and predictability of reinforcement.

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fixed-ratio (FR) schedule

answer

reinforcement schedule in which desired behavior is rewarded following a fixed number of behaviors.

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variable-ratio (VR) schedule

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reinforcement schedule in which desired behavior is rewarded following an unpredictable number of behaviors.

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fixed-interval schedule

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reinforcement schedule in which desired behavior is rewarded following a constant amount of time.

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variable-interval schedule.

answer

reinforcement schedule in which desired behavior is rewarded following an unpredictable amount of time.

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maintenance

answer

continuation (of behavior)

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antecedent stimuli

answer

events that precede behaviors

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cues

answer

signals as to what behavior(s) will be reinforced or punished. (also know as antecedent stimuli)

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discrimination

answer

perception of and response to different stimuli

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generalization

answer

carryover of behaviors, skills, or concepts from one setting or task to another.

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social learning theory

answer

learning theory that emphasizes not only reinforcement but also the effects of cues on thought and of thought on action. developed by Bandura

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modeling

answer

imitation of others' behavior. (Bandura)

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observational learning

answer

Bandura states it has four phases: 1. attentional phase-paying attention to a model 2. retention phase-students watch the model and then practice. 3. reproduction phase- try to match their behavior to the model's 4. motivational phase- student will continue behavior if it is reinforced.

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vicarious learning

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learning based on the observation of the consequences of others' behavior.

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self-regulation

answer

rewarding or punishing one's own behavior.

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cognitive behavior modification

answer

procedures based on both behavioral and cognitive principles for changing one's own behavior by means of self-talk and self-instruction. (Meichenbaum)

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information-processing theory

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cognitive theory of learning that describes the processing, storage, and retrieval of knowledge in the mind.

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sensory register

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component of the memory system in which information is received and held for very short periods of time.

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perception

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a person's interpretation of stimuli

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attention

answer

active focus on certain stimuli to the exclusion of others

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short-term/ working memory

answer

the component of memory in which limited amounts of information can be stored for a few seconds.

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rehearsal

answer

mental repetition of information, which can improve its retention

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working memory capacity

answer

5 to 9 pieces of information

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long-term memory

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the components of memory in which large amounts of information can be stored for long periods of time.

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episodic memory

answer

a part of long-term memory that stores images of our personal experiences

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semantic memory

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a parts of long-term memory that stores facts and general knowledge

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procedural memory

answer

a part of long-term memory that stores information about how to do things

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flashbulb memory

answer

important events that a fixed mainly in visual and auditory memory.

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schemata

answer

mental networks of related concepts that influence understanding of new information

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levels-of-processing theory

answer

explanation of memory that links recall of a stimulus with the amount of mental processing it receives.

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dual code theory of memory

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theory suggesting that information coded both visually and verbally is remembered better than information coded in only one of those two ways.

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interference

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inhibition of recall of certain information by the presence of other information in memory.

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retroactive inhibition

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decreased ability to recall previously learning information, caused by learning of new information.

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proactive inhibition

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decreased ability to learn new information, caused by interference from existing knowledge

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proactive facilitation

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increased ability to learn new information based on the presence of previously acquired information.

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retroactive facilitation

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increased comprehension of previously learned information because of the acquisition of new information.

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primacy effect

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the tendency for items at the beginning of a list to be recalled more easily that other items.

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recency effect

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the tendency for items at the end of a list to be recalled more easily than other items.

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automaticity

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a level of rapidity and ease such that tasks can be performed or skills utilized with little mental effort.

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massed practice

answer

technique in which fact or skills to be learned are repeated often over a concentrated period of time.

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distributed practice

answer

technique in which items to be learned are repeated at intervals over a period of time.

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enactment

answer

learning process in which individuals physically carry out tasks.

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verbal learning

answer

learning of words (or facts expressed in words).

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paired-associate learning

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learning of items in linked pairs so that when one member of a pair is presented, the other can be recalled.

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serial learning

answer

memorization of a series of items in a particular order.

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free-recall learning

answer

learning of a list of items in any order.

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imagery

answer

mental visualization of images to improve memory

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mnemonics

answer

devices or strategies for aiding the memory

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keyword method

answer

a strategy for improving memory by using images to link pairs of items.

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loci method

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a strategy for remembering lists by picturing items in familiar locations

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pegword method

answer

a strategy for memorization in which images are used to link list of facts to a familiar set of words or numbers.

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initial-letter strategies

answer

strategies for learning in which initial letters of items to be memorized are made into a more easily remembered word or phrase.

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rote learning

answer

memorization of facts or association that might be essentially arbitrary

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meaningful learning

answer

mental processing of new informations that relates to previously learned knowledge.

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inert knowledge

answer

learned information that could be applied to a wide range of situations but whose use is limited to restricted, often artificial, applications.

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schema theory

answer

theory stating that information is stored in long-term memory in schemata (networks of connected facts and concepts), which provide a structure for making sense of new information.

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metacognition

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knowledge about one's own learning or about how to learn ("thinking about thinking")

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metacognitive skills

answer

methods for learning, studying, or solving problems.

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self-questioning strategies

answer

learning strategies that call on students to ask themselves who, what, where, and how questions as they read materials.

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note-taking

answer

a study strategy that requires decisions about what to write.

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summarizing

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writing brief statements that represent the main idea of the information being read

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outlining

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representing the main points of material in a hierarchical format.

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mapping

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diagramming main ideas and the connections between them

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PQ4R method

answer

a study strategy that has students preview, question, read, reflect, recite, and review material.

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advance organizers

answer

activities and techniques that orient students to the material before reading or class presentation

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analogies

answer

images, concepts, or narratives that compare new information to information students already understand.

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elaboration

answer

the process of connecting new material to information or ideas already in the learner's mind.

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direct instruction

answer

approach to teaching in which the teacher transmits information directly to the students; lessons are goal oriented and structured by the teacher.

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parts of a direct instruction lesson

answer

state learning objectives and orient students to the lesson. review prerequisites present new material conduct learning probes provide independent practice assess performance and provide feedback provide distributed practice and review

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mental set

answer

students' attitude of readiness to begin a lesson

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rule-example-rule

answer

pattern of teaching concepts by presenting a rule or definition, giving examples, and then showing how examples illustrate the rule

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lesson clarity

answer

use of direct, simple, and well-organized language to present concepts.

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worked examples

answer

teacher works out an example of a problem on the board...modeling their thought process.

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demonstrations, models, and illustrations

answer

student seeing and when appropriate having hands-on experience with concepts and skills.

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learning probes

answer

a method, such as questioning, that helps teachers find out whether students understand a lesson.

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wait time

answer

length of time that a teacher waits for a student to answer a question

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calling order

answer

the order in which students are called on by the teacher to answer questions during the course of a lesson.

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choral responses

answer

responses to questions made by an entire class in unison

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independent practice

answer

component of instruction in which students work by themselves to demonstrate and rehearse new knowledge.

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seatwork

answer

work that students are assigned to do independently during class.

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effective use of independent practice time

answer

do not assign independent practice until you are sure students can do it. keep independent practice assignments short give clear instructions get students started and then avoid interruptions monitor independent work collects independent work and include it in their grades

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process-product studies

answer

research approach in which the teaching practices of effective teachers are recorded through classroom observation

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concept

answer

an abstract idea that is generalized from specific examples

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transfer of learning

answer

the application of knowledge acquired in one situation to new situations.

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constructivist theories of learning

answer

theories that state that learners must individually discover and transform complex information, checking new information against old rules and revising rules when they no longer work. (student-centered instruction)

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cognitive apprenticeship

answer

process by which a learner gradually acquires expertise through interaction with an expert, with an adult or an older or more advanced peer.

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top-down processing

answer

students begin with complex problems to solve and then work out or discover (with the teacher's guidance) the basic skills required.

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bottom-up processing

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basic skills are gradually build into more complex skills.

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cooperative learning

answer

strategy where students more easily discover and comprehend difficult concepts if they can talk with each other about the problems (constructivist supported learning)

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discovery learning

answer

students are encouraged to discover principles for themselves

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self-regulated learners

answer

students who have knowledge of effective learning strategies and how and when to use them

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mediated learning

answer

assisted learning; an approach in which the teacher guides instruction by means of scaffolding to help students master and internalize the skills that permit higher cognitive functioning.

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reciprocal teaching

answer

a small-group teaching method based on principles of question generation; through instruction and modeling, teachers foster metacognitive skills primarily to improve the reading performance of students who have poor comprehension

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cooperative scripting

answer

a study method in which students work in pairs and take turns orally summarizing sections of material to be learned.

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means-ends analysis

answer

problem-solving technique that encourages indentifying the goal (ends) to be attained, the current situation, and what needs to be done (means) to reduce the difference between the two conditions.

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instrumental enrichment

answer

a thinking skills program in which students work through a series of paper-and-pencil exercises that are designed to develop various intellectual abilities.

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QAIT model

answer

a model of effective instruction that focuses on elements teachers can directly control: quality, appropriateness, incentive, and time.

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between-class ability grouping

answer

the practice of grouping students in separate classes according to ability level

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within-class ability grouping

answer

a system of accommodating student differences by diving a class of students into two or more ability groups for instruction in certain subject areas.

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untracking

answer

a focus on having students in mixed-ability groups and holding them to high standards but providing many ways for students to reach those standards

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regrouping

answer

a method of ability grouping in which students in mixed-ability classes are assigned to reading or math classes on the basis of their performance levels

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Joplin Plan

answer

a regrouping method in which students are grouped across grade lines for reading instruction

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nongraded programs

answer

programs, generally at the primary level, that combine children of different ages in the same class. Also called cross-age grouping programs.

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individualized instruction

answer

instruction tailored to particular students' needs, in which each student works at her or his own level and rate.

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compensatory education

answer

programs designed to prevent or remediate learning problems among students from lower socioeconomic status communities.

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motivation

answer

an internal process that activates, guides and maintains behavior over time.

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Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

answer

identifies two main types of needs: deficiency needs and growth needs. People are motivated to satisfy needs at the bottom of the hierarchy before seeking to satisfy those at the top. (deficiency needs bottom to top: physiological needs, safety needs, belongingness and love needs, esteem needs) (growth needs bottom to top: need to know and understand, aesthetic needs, self-actualization needs)

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deficiency needs

answer

basic requirements for physical and psychological well-being as identified by Maslow

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growth needs

answer

needs for knowing, appreciating, and understanding, which people try to satisfy after their basic needs are met as identified by Maslow

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self-actualization

answer

a person's ability to develop his or her full potential

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attribution theory

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a theory of motivation that focuses on how people explain the causes of their own successes and failures.

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locus of control

answer

a personality trait that determines whether people attribute responsibility for their own failure or success to internal or external factors

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internal locus of control (self-efficacy)

answer

one who believes that success or failure is the result of his or her own efforts or abilities

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external locus of control

answer

one who believes that other factors, such as luck, task difficulty, and other people's actions, cause success or failure

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expectancy theory

answer

a theory of motivation based on the belief that people's efforts to achieve depend on their expectations of reward

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expectancy-valence model

answer

a theory that relates the probability and the incentive value of success to motivation

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achievement motivation

answer

the desire to experience success and to participate in activities in which success depends on personal effort and abilities

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learning goals

answer

the goals of students who are motivated primarily by desire for knowledge acquisition and self-improvement. Also called mastery goals

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performance goals

answer

the goals of students who are motivated primarily by a desire to gain recognition from others and to earn good grades.

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learned helplessness

answer

the expectation, based on experience, that one's actions will ultimately lead to failure.

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communicating positive expectations

answer

wait for students to respond, avoid unnecessary achievement distinctions among students, and treat all students equally.

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strategies to enhance intrinsic motivation

answer

arousing interest, maintaining curiosity, interesting presentation modes, and helping students set their own goals

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principles for providing extrinsic incentives

answer

expressing clear expectations, providing clear feedback, providing immediate feedback, providing frequent feedback, increasing the value and availability of extrinsic motivators

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withitness

answer

Kounin, the degree to which the teacher is aware of and responsive to student behavior at all times

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overlapping

answer

teacher's ability to attend to interruptions or behavior problems while continuing a lesson or other instructional activity.

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mock participation

answer

situation in which students appear to be on-task but are not engaged in learning.

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assertive discipline

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method of giving clear, firm, unhostile response to student misbehavior (Canter and Canter)...uses broken record

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applied behavior analysis

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application of behavioral learning principles to understanding and changing behavior (what is the target behavior and the reinforcer)

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group contingencies

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class rewards that depend on the behavior of ALL students

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home-based reinforcement strategies

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behavior modification strategies in which a student's school behavior is reported to parents, who supply rewards.

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Blooms Taxonomy

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Simple to complex: knowledge (recall), comprehension (translating, interpreting, or extrapolating), application (using principles or abstractions to solve novel or real-life problems), analysis (breaking down complex information or ideas into simpler parts to understand how they relate), synthesis (creation of something that did not exist before), evaluation (judging something against a given standard) .

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behavior-content matrix

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a chart that classifies lesson objectives according to cognitive level.

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affective objectives

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objectives that have to do with student attitudes and values.

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formative evaluation

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designed to determine whether additional instruction is needed

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summative evaluations

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final evaluations of students' achievement of an objective

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norm-referenced interpretations

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assessments that compare the performance of one students against the performance of others

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criterion-references interpretations

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assessments that rate how thoroughly students have mastered specific skills or areas of knowledge

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derived scores

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values computed from raw scores that relate students' performances to those of a norming group

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content evidence

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measure of the match between the content of a test and the content of the instruction that preceded it.

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criterion-related evidence

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a type of evidence of validity that exists when scores on a test are related to scores from another measure of an associated trait

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