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gender

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characteristics of people as males and females

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gender identity

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A sense of one's own gender, including knowledge, understanding, and acceptance of being male or female -- emerges before 2 years old

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gender role

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sets of expectations that prescribe how females and males should think, act, and feel

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gender typing

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acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role

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2 hormones

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estrogens, androgens

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biological, social, and cognitive influences on gender

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•Sex-typed behavior increases during preschool years --Children engaged in the most sex-typed behavior during preschool were still doing so at 8 years old

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estrogens

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-a class of sex hormones that influence female physical sex characteristics and help regulate menstrual cycle --Most important androgen is testosterone --Women have some testosterone --Both estrange occur in females and males in different concentrations

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androgens

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-a class of sex hormones that promote development of male genitals and secondary sex characteristics --Most important androgen is testosterone --Women have some testosterone --Both estrange occur in females and males in different concentrations

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Exposure to unusual levels of sex hormones prenatally can result in

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--Congenital adrenal hyperplasia --Androgen-insensitive males --Pelvic field defect

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Pelvic field defect

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--Lack genitalia --Parents basically have to choose to perform operations on whether they want their child to be a boy or girl --Some are born with ambiguous genitalia (can't tell at first if it is a boy or a girl) --Still pick up male gender role

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Androgen-insensitive males

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--Testosterone receptors don't work (cant go anywhere or be received by anything) --Look more feminine --Tend to pick up female gender role

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Congenital adrenal hyperplasia

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--Females who are born --Less happy w/ female gender role, stronger desire to be male, usually enjoy more masculine things

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biological, social, and cognitive influences on gender

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-Sex hormones alone do not dictate behavior --Testosterone involved in aggressive and sexual behavior; more testosterone you have, more aggressive and sexual behavior you have

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The evolutionary psychology view

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-Natural selection favored males who adapted short-term mating strategies --Males evolved dispositions that favor violence, competition, and risk taking -Females favored who devoted effort to parenting and chose males who could provide offspring with resources and protection

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Social role theory (3 theories of Social Influences)

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-psychological gender differences result from contrasting roles of women and men --Example: In most world cultures, women have less power and status than men, and they control fewer resources --Social hierarchy and division of labor are important causes of gender differences in power, assertiveness, and nurture

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Psychoanalytic theory of gender (3 theories of Social Influences)

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-freud theory -Stems from Freud's view that preschool children develop a sexual attraction to opposite-sex parent -At 5-6 years old, children renounce attraction because of anxious feelings -Identifies with same-sex parent and unconsciously adopts same-sex parent's characteristics

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Social cognitive theory of gender (3 theories of Social Influences)

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-children's gender development occurs through observation and imitation --Rewards and punishments shape gender-appropriate behavior

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Biological, social, and cognitive influences on gender

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-Parents teach children how to be masculine or feminine -Mothers and fathers often interact differently with children and adolescents --Mothers are more involved than fathers ---Caregiving and teaching activities --Fathers increase time spent parenting when they have sons and are less likely to divorce when they have sons ---Leisure activities -Gender interactions with parents being in infancy and continue through adolescence

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Mothers' socialization strategies

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-Daughters to be obedient and responsible -Place restrictions on daughter's autonomy

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Fathers' socialization strategies

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-Pay more attention and engage in more activities with sons -Put forth more effort toward son's intellectual development (help them with school work, projects, want them to succeed)

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Biological, social, and cognitive influences on gender

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-Children also learn about gender from observing other adults in neighborhood and media -As children age, peers become increasingly more important, rewarding and punishing gender behavior --Generally more accepted for girls to act like boys than for boys to act like girls -From 4 to 12 years old, children spend a large majority of free play time exclusively with peers of their same sex --Continues into adolescence; being with same sex friends -Playground is called \"gender school\"; majority play with peers of the same sex

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Schools and teachers—bias against boys

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-Compliance, following rules, and being neat and orderly valued and reinforced in many classrooms -Large majority of teachers are female, especially at elementary level -Boys are more likely to have learning disability, ADHD, and to drop out -Teachers tend to pay more attention to boys; but a negative attention -Boys are more likely to be criticized by teachers -Boys' behavior is more likely to be stereotyped as problematic

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Schools and teachers—bias against girls

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-Girls' compliance and quiet in the classroom may come at the cost of diminished assertiveness -Teachers spend more time watching and interacting with boy -Boys get more instruction and more help when having trouble than girls -Girls and boys enter first grade with same level of self-esteem --Girls' self-esteem becomes lower than boys' by middle school

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Biological, social, and cognitive influences on gender

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-Argument that single-sex education eliminates distractions from opposite sex and reduces sexual harassment --Single-sex public schools have increased in recent years

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Gender schema theory

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-emerges as children gradually develop gender schemas of what is gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate in their culture -organize the world in terms of male and female -Children motivated to act in ways that conform to ________ ____ --Gender identity --Gender constancy

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gender stereotyping

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-is present in 2-year-olds and increases by 4 years of age -By late adolescence, gender attitudes become more flexible -Children expand the range and extent of gender stereotypes --Occupations, sports, and school tasks -During middle and late childhood and adolescence: --Appearance stereotypes more prevalent for girls --Activity and trait stereotypes more prevalent for boys

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gender differences

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-do not apply to all females or males --Even when they appear, there is often considerable overlap between males and females -may be exaggerated

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gender differences

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-Women have twice the body fat of men -On average, males grow to be 10 percent taller than females --Androgens promote growth of long bones --Estrogens stop such growth at puberty -Males have higher stress levels of stress hormones -Females have longer life expectancy and are less likely to develop physical or mental disorders

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gender differences in brain structure and activity

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-Part of the hypothalamus involved in sexual behavior is larger in men -Area of the parietal lobe that functions in visuo-spatial skills is larger in males -Areas of brain involved in emotional expression tend to show more activity in females -Females brains are 10 percent smaller than males -No gender differences found in overall intellectual ability

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gender differences

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-Boys have better visuo-spatial skills than girls -No difference in math scores -Girls score higher than boys in reading and writing -Girls earn better grades overall and complete high school at a higher rate

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gender differences

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-Boys are more physically aggressive than girls --Occurs in all cultures and appears early in child development --Difference in physical aggression pronounced when provoked to anger -Girls use relational aggression (mean girls style

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Gender differences in children's emotional expression

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-is very small -Females express emotions more openly than males -Males experience and express more anger than females -Boys show less self-regulation than girls -Girls are more \"people-orientated,\" while boys are more \"things-orientated\"

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gender behavior

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-occurs in contexts -helping behavior -display of emotions

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Amount, timing, and intensity of gender socialization (varies for boys and girls)

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-Boys receive earlier and more intense gender socialization than girls -Social cost of deviating from expected male role is higher for boys

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Gender intensification hypothesis

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-Psychological and behavioral differences becomes greater during early adolescence -Increases pressure to conform to traditional masculine and feminine gender roles -Adopting a strong masculine role associated with problem behaviors

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rapport talk (Gender and Communication)

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-language of conversation -way of establishing connections and negotiating relationships -women enjoy this (talking just to talk)

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report talk (Gender and Communication)

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-Designed to give information -Men do this

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Decreasing femininity and masculinity in late adulthood

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-older men become more nurturing -women do not necessarily become more masculine

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3 scripts (Cultural Factors)

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sexual, traditional religious, romantic

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sexual scripts

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-Socially learned idea of \"proper\" sexual behavior --Men and women often have different sexual scripts --Men should be the aggressor, asking the women out, etc. is what society says --Society says women are the gate keeper; yes or no; they entice or invite

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traditional religious script

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-Sex is acceptable only within marriage -Extramarital sex is a taboo, especially for women -Sex means reproduction and sometimes affection

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romantic script

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-Sex is synonymous with love (if you love someone you can have sex with them) -If in a relationship and in love, it is acceptable to have sex whether married or not -Women are more likely to follow romantic script than men

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Heterosexual Attitudes and Behavior

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-Overwhelming majority of Americans aged 25-44 report that they engage in heterosexual behavior -98 percent of women and 97 percent of men engaged in vaginal intercourse -89 percent of women and 90 percent of men report having oral sex with an opposite-sex partner -36 percent of women and 44 percent of men report having anal sex with opposite-sex partner

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Sex in America survey

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-Americans sexual lives are more conservative than previously believed -Sexual behavior is ruled by marriage and monogamy -Men report having slightly more sexual experiences and more permissive attitudes than women regarding most aspects of sexuality -Sexuality plays a role in well-being (better sex) --Linked to life satisfaction

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bisexuality (Attitudes and Behavior of Lesbians and Gay Males)

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-being sexually attracted to people of both sexes -Regardless of sexual orientation, people have similar physiological responses during sexual arousal seem to be aroused by same types of tactile stimulation -Sexual orientation is likely to determined by a combination of genetic, hormonal, cognitive, and environmental factors -Many gender differences in heterosexuality relationships appear in same-sex relationships --Lesbians have fewer sexual partners than gays ---Less permissive attitudes about casual sex outside a primary

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critical period hypothesis

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-if this hypothesis turns out to be correct, it would explain why clinicians have found that sexual orientation is difficult, if not impossible to modify -is the subject of a long-standing debate in linguistics and language acquisition over the extent to which the ability to acquire language is biologically linked to age?

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sexually transmitted infections

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diseases that are primarily contracted through sex-penile-vaginal intercourse as well as oral-genital sex

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rape

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forcible sexual intercourse, oral sex, or anal sex with a person who does not give consent. legal definitions differ from state to state

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date or acquaintance rape

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coercive sexual activity directed at someone with whom the victim is at least casually acquainted

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sexual harassment

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sexual persecution that can take many forms-from sexist remarks and physical contact (patting, brushing against someone's body) to blatant propositions and sexual assaults

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child sexuality

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-Majority of children engage in some sex play, usually with friends or siblings -Exhibiting or inspecting genitals -Motivated by curiosity -Curiosity about sex remains high throughout elementary school years -Children may ask about reproduction and sexuality

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Sexuality in Adolescence and Emerging Adulthood

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-Is a time of sexual exploration and experimentation -Sexual fantasies and realities -Incorporating sexuality into one's identity -Periods of vulnerability and confusion about sexuality on the way to mature sexual identity

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sexuality

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-In US children and adolescents learn a great deal about sex from television -TV, film, music, and internet becoming increasingly sexually explicit -Information about abstinence, sexual responsibility, and birth control rarely included

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developing a sexual identity

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-involves learning to manage sexual feelings (such as sexual arousal and attraction), developing new forms of intimacy, and learning the skills to regulate sexual behavior to avoid undesirable consequences -an adolescent's __ ___ is influenced by social norms related to sex- the extent to which adolescents perceive that their peers are having sex, using protection, and so on -__ ___ involves activities, styles of behavior, and an indication of sexual orientation

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The Timing and Frequency of Adolescent Sexual Behaviors

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-Timing of sexual initiation varies by country, gender, and other socioeconomic characteristics -In the US, male, African American, and inner-city adolescents report being the most sexually active -Asian American adolescents have the most restrictive sexual timetable -Adolescent males are more likely to report having had sexual intercourse and being sexually active --Also more likely to describe sexual intercourse as enjoyable and experience -Oral sex is common occurrence among US adolescents

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1991 to 2011, trends indicate that fewer adolescents report

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-Having had sexual intercourse -Currently being sexually active -Having had sexual intercourse before age 13 -Having had intercourse with 4 or more persons

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Adolescent sex and positive or negative consequences for sexual health

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-Not emotionally prepared to handle sexual experiences, especially in early adolescence -Early sexual activity linked with risky behaviors, such as drug use, delinquency, and school-related problems

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Spirituality is linked to positive sexual outcomes among adolescents

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Less likely to intend to have sex, not as likely to engage in early sex, tended to have sex less frequently, not as likely to become pregnant

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sexual risk factors in adolescence

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-early sexual activity is linked with risky behaviors such as drug use, delinquency, and school-related problems -many adolescents are not emotionally prepared to handle sexual experiences, especially in early adolescence

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contraceptive use

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-contraceptive use has increased from 1991 to 2009, but condom use has not increased greatly -many adolescents still do not use contraceptives, or use the inconsistently

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sexually transmitted infections

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-every year more than 3 million american adolescent's acquire an STI

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adolescent pregnancy

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-US has one of the highest adolescent pregnancy and childbearing rates in the industrialized world -declining rates among pregnant US citizens -adolescent pregnancy creates health risks for both the baby and the mother

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middle adulthood (sexuality and aging)

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-Most men do not lose capacity to have children -Modest decline in sexual hormone level and activity -Testosterone production slows and sperm count shows a slow decline -Declining physical energy, family and work pressures -Erections less full and frequent and more stimulation required to achieve them -Sexual activity during middle adulthood usually occurs less frequent

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sex and emerging adulthood

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-By end of emerging adulthood, most individuals have experienced sexual intercourse --Most individuals are sexually active and unmarried --Average age of marriage in US is currently 28 for males and 26 for females -Sexual risk factors increase during emerging adulthood --Males engaging in more risk factors than females -Predictors of risky sexual behaviors during emerging adulthood: --Becoming sexually active in adolescence --Without high school diploma --Less religiously --More alcohol use -Recent trends in \"hooking up\" and non-relationship sex (hooking-up)

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climacteric

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midlife transition in which fertility declines (usually only happens to women, not men)

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menopause

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-When a women's menstrual period cease --In the United States, the average age of __ is 51.

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Perimenopause

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the transitional period from normal menstrual periods to no menstrual periods at all, which often takes up to 10 years

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hormone replacement therapy

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is the use of synthetic or natural female hormones to make up for the decline or lack of natural hormones produced in a woman's body -was halted once because it increased risk of stroke

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moral development

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changes in thoughts, feelings, and behaviors regarding standards of right and wrong -intrapersonal -interpersonal

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intrapersonal

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regulates activity

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interpersonal

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regulates social interactions and arbitrates conflict

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piaget's theory (moral thought)

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Heteronomous mortality (4-7 yrs.), transitional period, autonomous mortality (10+yrs)

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Heteronomous morality

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rules and morality as unchangeable properties of the world (4-7 years) --immanent justice -As children age, they become more sophisticated thinkers. Peer relations likely to advance moral reasoning -As moral autonomists, older children recognize that punishment only occurs if there is a witness -Children's moral advancements are inconsistent and vary across situations

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immanent justice

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If a rule is broke, punishment will be meted out immediately

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autonomous mortality

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understand all of our rules and somebody wrote laws. That means they can be changed and people realize this

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kohlberg's theory

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-universal stages of moral development -perspective taking and experience of conflict between one's stage and higher moral reasoning of others advances moral development -3 stages -pre-conventional reasoning, conventional reasoning, post-conventional reasoning

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pre-conventional reasoning (kohlberg's theory)

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-lowest level of moral reasoning -2 substages -Good and bad interpreted according to external reward and punishment stage 1: Heteronomous morality: moral thinking is tied to punishment (punishment) stage 2: Individualism, instrumental purpose, and exchange: individuals pursue their own interests but also let others do the same (reward)

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conventional reasoning (kohlberg's theory)

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Intermediate level in Kohlberg's theory --Individuals apply certain standards that are set by others, such as parents or government -2 substages -Stage 3: Mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships, and interpersonal conformity: Individuals value trust, caring, and loyalty to others as basis of moral judgment -Stage 4: Social systems morality: judgments based on understanding in social order, law, justice, and duty

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post-conventional reasoning (kohlberg's theory)

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-highest level of moral reasoning (very few people get to this level and wont until young adults or 30's and 40's according to Kohlberg) -Individual recognizes alternative moral courses, explores options, and the decides on a personal moral code -2 substages -Stage 5: Social contract or utility and individual rights: individuals reason that values, rights, and principles undergird or transcend the law -Stage 6: Universal ethical principles: individuals develop a moral standard based on universal human rights

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substage 1 of pre-conventional reasoning

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Heteronomous morality: moral thinking is tied to punishment (punishment)

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substage 2 of pre-conventional reasoning

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Individualism, instrumental purpose, and exchange: individuals pursue their own interests but also let others do the same (reward)

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substage 1 of conventional reasoning (stage 3 overall)

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Mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships, and interpersonal conformity: Individuals value trust, caring, and loyalty to others as basis of moral judgment

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substage 2 of conventional reasoning (stage 4 overall)

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Social systems morality: judgments based on understanding in social order, law, justice, and duty

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substage 1 of post-conventional reasoning (stage 5 overall)

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Social contract or utility and individual rights: individuals reason that values, rights, and principles undergird or transcend the law

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substage 2 of post-conventional reasoning (stage 6 overall)

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Universal ethical principles: individuals develop a moral standard based on universal human rights

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Influences on the Kohlberg Stages

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-Levels and stages occur sequentially and are age-related -Before age 9, children use stage 1 pre-conventional reasoning -Most adolescents reason at stage 3 -By early adulthood, a small number of individuals reason in post-conventional ways -Moral stages appeared somewhat later than Kohlberg envisioned

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Kohlberg's Critics

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-Families and Moral Development -Parents may play a larger role in moral development than Kohlberg imagined -Parent-child communication, discipline techniques, and other aspects of parental relationship influence children's moral development -Kohlberg's theory criticized for placing emphasis on moral thought and not enough on moral behavior -Some critics claim that his theory is culturally biased -As Kohlberg predicted, individuals do move though stages in sequence -Cohort effects in moral reasoning --Post-conventional reasoning has declined in college students down to lowest level --Declines in pro-social behavior in recent years in Western cultures -Gender and the Care Perspective --Justice perspective: At the heart of Kohlberg's mortality --Care perspective: Emphasizes connectedness with others, interpersonal communication, social relationships, and concern for others -Assessment of Moral Reasoning -Social Conventional Reasoning -Social conventional reasoning

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Cohort effects in moral reasoning

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-Post-conventional reasoning has declined in college students down to lowest level -Declines in pro-social behavior in recent years in Western cultures

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Gender and the Care Perspective

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-justice perspective -care perspective

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justice perspective

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At the heart of Kohlberg's mortality

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care perspective

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Emphasizes connectedness with others, interpersonal communication, social relationships, and concern for others

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social conventional reasoning

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focuses on thoughts about social consensus and convention. It is created to control behavioral irregularities and maintain a type of social system. For example raising your hand in class before speaking or using a knife and fork to eat meals

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Gilligan's theory

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-Kohlberg's theory is based on male norms that put abstract principles above relationships and concern for others --Justice Perspective --Care Perspective --Girls consistently interpret moral dilemmas in terms of human relationships

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moral behavior

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-Processes of reinforcement, punishment, and imitations have been used to explain how individuals learn moral behavior. -Effectiveness of reward and punishment depend on consistency and timing -Effectiveness of modeling depend on characteristics of the model and cognitive skills of observer -Individuals do not consistently display moral behavior in different situations

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basic processes

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the processes of reinforcement, punishment, and imitation have been invoked to explain how individuals learn certain responses and why their responses differ from one another

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resistance to temptation and self-control

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when pressures mount for individuals to cheat, lie, or steal, it is important to ask whether they have developed the ability to resist temptation and to exercise self-control -Walter Mischel argues that self-control is strongly influenced by cognitive factors -researchers have shown that children can instruct themselves to be more patient and, in the proces, show more self-control

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social cognitive theory of mortality

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the theory that distinguishes between moral competence and moral performance

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Moral competencies

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ability to perform moral behaviors

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Moral performance

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performing of moral behaviors

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moral development

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is best understood by a combination of social and cognitive factors -especially self-control

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Freud's perspective of moral feeling

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Guilt and desire to avoid feeling guilty are foundation of moral behavior

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psychoanalytic theory (freud's perspective)

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-ego ideal -conscience

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ego ideal

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Component of superego that rewards the child by conveying a sense of pride and personal value when acting in accordance to ideal standards approved by parents -the component of the superego that distinguishes between moral competence and moral performance

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conscience

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punishes the child for behaviors disapproved by parents. How does it punish you? → Makes the child feel guilty and worthless -the component of the super ego that punishes the child for behaviors disapproved of by the parents by making the child feel guilty and worthless

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empathy (freuds perspective?)

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-reacting to another's feelings with an emotional response that is similar to the other's feelings --Emotional state with cognitive components

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moral behavior

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-In early childhood, children respond appropriately to another's distress -By late childhood, we say you have true empathy -Many developmentalists believe positive and negative feelings contribute to children's moral development --When strongly experienced, emotions influence children to act in accord with standards of right or wrong -Empathy, shame, guilt, and anxiety over other people's violations of standards are present early in development --Undergo developmental change throughout childhood and later -Sympathy motivates behavior --Other-orientated emotional response n which on observes the same or similar emotions as the other person is feeling

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moral identity

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-aspect of personality that is present when individuals have moral notions and commitments central to their lives --Behaving in a manner that violates moral commitment places self-integrity at risk

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moral character

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having the strength of your convictions, persisting, and overcoming distractions and obstacles -Among moral virtues people emphasize: --Honesty, truthfulness, trustworthiness --Care, compassion, thoughtfulness, and considerateness --Dependability, loyalty, conscientiousness

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moral motivation

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is an instance of a more general phenomenon—what we might call normative motivation—for our other normative judgments also typically have some motivating force

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moral exemplars

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-people who have lived exemplary lives (example set for everyone else of what it means to be moral) --Moral personality, identity, character, and virtues that reflect moral excellence and commitment --(Martin Luther King Jr.) — Among young adults, moral exemplars were more advanced in moral reasoning, further along in identity development, more likely to be in close relationships

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domain theory

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-Identifies different domains in social knowledge and reasoning -Arise from children's and adolescents' attempts to understand and deal with different forms of social experience

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Social conventional Reasoning

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Focuses on conventional rules established by social consensus and convention, as opposed to moral reasoning, which stresses ethical issues

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parenting (contexts of moral development)

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adult mentors provide lessons about morality in everyday experiences -Among aspects between parents and children that contribute to moral development: > a. Relational Quality b. Proactive Strategies c. Conversational Dialogue d. Parenting recommendations e. Schools

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hidden curriculum

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-conveyed by moral atmosphere that is part of every school --Created by school and classroom rules, orientation of teachers and administrators, and text materials

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character education

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-direct education approach that involves teaching students a basic moral literacy (usually more of an impact than hidden curriculum) --Prevent from engaging in immoral behavior and doing harm to themselves or others -values clarification -cognitive moral education -service learning

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service learning

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-form of education that promotes social responsibility and service to the community --Goal is for adolescents to become less self-centered and more strongly motivated to help others

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Service learning programs more effective when

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-Students have some choice in service activities to participate in -Students are provided opportunities to reflect on their participation

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Service learning benefits

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-Higher grades in school -Increased goal setting -Higher self-esteem -Enhanced sense of empowerment -Increased likelihood of volunteering in the future

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parent strategies that contribute to moral behavior

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--Warm and supportive, use inductive reasoning, authoritative parenting style --Non-punitive, do not use withdrawal as discipline --Provide opportunities for children to learn about others' perspectives and feelings --Involve children in family decision-making and in thinking about moral decisions

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given reasons for cheating

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-Pressure to get high grades, time constraints, poor teaching, and lack of interest --#1 reason people report doing it is because they know a peer cheated and got away with it** --is situationally influenced --More likely when not monitored during test, when peers are cheating, when another student has cheated without being caught, when scores are made public --Personality traits associated with ___

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altruism

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unselfish interest and voluntary effort in helping another person

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reciprocity

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pervades human interaction worldwide (karma)

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Developmental sequence of sharing/fairness in children

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-3 years olds- non-empathetic reasons -4 years old- obligatory reasons -School age- objective reasons

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By start of elementary school, children begin to express more complicated notions of fairness, including

answer

-Equality -Merit (I deserve more extra credit because I am at class participating and listening and not on Facebook or on phone) -Benevolence- (not people who deserve it, but need it more)

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benevolence

answer

not people who deserve it, but need it more

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forgiveness

answer

-Aspect of pro-social behavior occurring when injured person releases the injurer from possible behavioral retaliation -Forgiveness can be swayed by peer pressure

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gratitude

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-Feeling of thankfulness and appreciated, especially in response to kindness or helpfulness -Linked to a number of positive outcomes for adolescents

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genders and prosocial behavior

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Across childhood and adolescence, females engage more in pro-social behavior

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Altruism and Volunteerism in Older Adults

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Older adults benefit from participating in altruistic behavior and volunteering

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Conduct disorders

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-age-inappropriate actions and attitudes that violate family expectations, society's norms, and personal or property rights of others -Wide range of behaviors, including swearing, temper tantrums, vandalism, theft, assault -An estimated 5 percent of children show serious conduct problems --Show externalizing, or under-controlled, pattern of behavior -Early-onset anti-social behavior (before age 11) associated with more negative developmental outcomes than late-onset (after age 11- more likely to authority conflict orientated) --More likely to persist into emerging adulthood --Associated with more mental health and relationship problems -Developmental pathways to delinquency: --Authority conflict --Covert (more hidden/less obvious behavior; theft, property damage) --Overt (aggressive behavior; physical abuse, rape, assault)

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developmental pathways to delinquency

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-Authority conflict -covert -overt

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delinquents

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(typically of a young person or that person's behavior) showing or characterized by a tendency to commit crime, particularly minor crime

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conduct disorder

answer

refers to age-inappropriate actions and attitudes that violate family expectations, society's norms, and the personal or property rights of others

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Juvenile delinquency

answer

-Actions taken by an adolescent in breaking the law or engaging in illegal behavior -Estimated 2 percent of all youth involved in juvenile court cases -Official records do not accurately reflect number of illegal acts committed by juvenile delinquents --Only those who have been caught and judged by court of law

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causes of delinquency

answer

many causes have been proposed, including heredity, identity problems, community influences, and family experiences

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spirituality

answer

experiencing something beyond oneself in a transcendent manner and living in a way that benefits others and society

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spirituality

answer

-Religious issues are important to many adults -During 21st century, religious interest among adolescents decreased -Societies use many methods of religious socializations to ensure children will carry on religious tradition -Individuals tend to adopt religious teachings of their upbringing

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values

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Beliefs and attitudes about the way things should be

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values

answer

-College students have shown increases concern for personal well-being and decreased concern for others' well-being -Especially the disadvantaged -Today's college freshman are more strongly motivated to be well-off financially

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religion

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Organized set of beliefs, practices, rituals, and symbols that increase individual connection to sacred or transcendent other

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religiousness

answer

Degree of affiliation with organized religion, participation in prescribed rituals and practices, connection with its beliefs, and involvement in community of believers --Challenge parents beliefs in adolescents

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Religion and Spirituality

answer

One long-standing source for discovering purpose in life is religion

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Childhood, Adolescence, and Emerging Adulthood religion and spirituality

answer

-Many religious adolescents also adopt religion's message about caring and concern for people

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Religiosity and spirituality in adulthood

answer

-Religiosity and spirituality in adulthood: --92 percent of Americans believe in God --75 percent pray at least weekly --58 percent pray every day --56 percent say religion is very important --39 percent attend religious services at least weekly

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Religion and Cognitive Development

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-even if children have been indoctrinated into a religion by their parents, because of advances in their cognitive development adolescents and emerging adults may question what their own religious beliefs truly are -many of the cognitive changes thought to influence religious development involve piaget's cognitive development theory

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Religion and Identity Development

answer

Adolescents and emerging adults look for answers to alot of questions about who they are. They wonder if there really is a higher spirit or a god, or if they have always just believed what their parents taught them. -adolescence and adulthood can serve as gateways to a spiritual identity that \"transcends\" but not necessarily excludes the assigned religious identity in childhood

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The Positive Role of Religion in Adolescents' Lives

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-various aspects of religion are linked with positive outcomes for adolescents -parents' religiousness during youths' adolescence was positively related to youths' own religiousness during adolescence -spirituality/religiousness is positively related to well-being, self-esteem, and three of the 5 big factors of personality

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Religion and Physical Health

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-Some cults and religious sects encourage health-damaging behaviors, such as ignoring medical advice -Several positive health outcomes associated with religiosity -Why might religion promote physical health? --Lifestyle issues --Social network --Coping with stress

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mean-making coping

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drawing on beliefs, values, and goals to change the meaning of a stressful situation, especially in times of high levels of stress such as when a loved one dies

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religion in older adults

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-In many world societies, older adults are spiritual leaders in churches and communities -Individuals over 65 years old are more likely than younger people to: --Say religious faith is significant influence on their lives --Try to put religious faith into practice --Attend religious services

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religion

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-Religion has ben linked with life satisfaction/well-being among older adults -Religion can meet important psychological -Facing impending death -Find and maintain sense of meaningfulness in life -Accept inevitable losses of old age

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social function of religious community

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providing social activities, social support, opportunity to teach, and leadership roles

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Bronfenbrenner (ecological theory) 5 environmental systems

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-microsystems -mesosystems -exosystem -macrosystem -chronosystem

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microsystem

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setting in which individuals live in

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mesosystem

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links between microsystems (neighbors, friend of mine is friend of sisters as well)

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exosystem

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influences from another setting that the individual does not experience directly (parent who works too much)

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macrosystem

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culture in which individuals live in (government influences on family, ethnic group in which you live)

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chronosystem

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socio-historical circumstances that change over time that affects us (great depression, same-sex marriage)

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Reciprocal socialization

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-socialization that is bidirectional --Children socialize parents just as parents socialize children -scaffolding

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scaffolding

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-form of synchrony -Adjusting level of guidance to fit child's performance -Can be used to support child's development at any age

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family as a system

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-As a social system, the family can be thought of as a constellation of subsystems defined in terms of generation, gender, and role. --Dyadic subsystems: involving two people --Polydyadic subsystems: involving more than two people --Subsystems interact and influence each other --Positive family climate involves not only effective parenting but a positive relationship between the parents

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Dyadic subsystems

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involving two people

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polydyadic subsystems

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involving more than two people

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Sociocultural and Historical Changes

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-Important sociocultural and historical influences affect family processes, which reflect Bronfenbrenner's concepts of the Macrosystem and Chronosystem. -Dramatic increase in immigration of Latino and Asian families into the United States --Experiences stressors uncommon to or less prominent to long-time residents -Subtle changes in a culture (e.g., increased longevity, TV, and the Internet) have significant influences on the family. --Longevity of older adults, movement to urban and suburban areas, widespread use of TV, computers, and Internet, general dissatisfaction and restlessness

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multiple developmental trajectories

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refers to the fact that adults follow one trajectory and children another

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Adults developmental trajectories

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timing of entry into cohabitation, marriage, or parenthood --timing of some family tasks and changes are planned, whereas others are not

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Child developmental trajectories

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timing of child care and entry into middle school -timing of some family tasks and changes are planned, whereas others are not

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diversity of adult lifestyles

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-One of the most striking social changes in recent decades is the decreased stigma attached to individuals who do not maintain what were long considered conventional families. -Adults today choose many different lifestyles and forms of families ^^ --United states has more marriages and remarriages, divorces, short-term cohabitation relationships than most countries

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single adults

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-Myths and stereotypes about singles abound ranging from \"swinging single\" to \"desperately lonely, suicidal single.\" -Dramatic rise in percentage of single adults -Rising rates of cohabitation and trend towards postponing marriage -Single adults are often stereotyped -Bias against unmarried adults in missed job perks and social and financial prejudices -Once adults reach the age of 30, there may be pressure to settle down and get married --Conscious choices made to marry or remain single --Less than 10 percent of people choose this route

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common challenges of single adults

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-Forming intimate relationships with other adults -Confronting loneliness -Finding niche in society that is marriage-orientated (weird for not wanting to get married; challenge of finding your spot in society)

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advantages of living alone

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-Time to make decisions about life course -Time to develop personal resources to meet goals -Freedom to make autonomous decisions and pursue schedule and interests -Opportunities to explore new places and try out new things -Privacy

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cohabiting adults

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-Young adults' main reasons for cohabitation are to spend time with each other, share expenses, and evaluate compatibility. -In the United States, cohabitation tends to be short-lived. One-third of cohabiting couples live together for less than a year. Less that 1 out of 10 lasts 5 years

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Cohabitation and Marital Stability/Happiness

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-Cohabitation does not lead to greater marital satisfaction, but rather the majority of research has found that cohabitation is not good for a marriage

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cohabiting older adults

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-number of cohabitating couples in US has increased dramatically since 1970's -more than 75 percent of adults cohabitate prior to getting married -In Us cohabitating arrangements tend to be short-lived --1/3 last less than a year --fewer than 1 out 10 last for 5 years -increasing amounts of older adults cohabitate --rates expected to rise in upcoming years dude to aging of Baby Boomer generation with more nontraditional values --cohabitation among older couples may be more for companionship than love

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diversity of adult lifestyles

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-men are more interested in love, marriage, and children than in previous generations --women desire more independence in relationships than their mothers did -many single adults looking for love, but not marriage -approximately 8 percent of adults in US who reach age of 65 have never been married --older adults who never marry have least difficulty coping with loneliness in old age

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cohabitation

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living together in a sexual relationship without being married

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young adults' reasons to cohabitate

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-spend time together -share expenses -evaluate compatibility -in cohabitating relationships, men are more concerned with loss of freedom while women are more concerned about delays in getting married

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couples who cohabitate face problems

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-disapproval from parents and other family members -difficulty owning property jointly -uncertain legal rights concerning dissolution of relationships -lower rates of marital satisfaction and higher rates of divorce in couples who live together before getting married --less traditional lifestyles may attract less conventional individuals who are not great believers in marriage --cohabitation may change attitudes and habits in ways that increase likelihood of divorce

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marital trends

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-the average duration of marriage in the US is just over 9 years

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diversity of adult lifestyles - marriage

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-changes in norms of male-female equality in marriage and increasingly high expectations for marital relationships --more fragile and intense relationships have been produced -marriage rates in US have declined in recent years --more adults reain single longer --increase in cohabitating couples --increase in divorced adults who never remarry -majority of americans do still get married --marriage's role in signaling a successful social life to family and friends --many young adults still plan to marry -changes in percentages of \"very happy\" marriages over time --married men consistently report being happier than married women

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relationship problems

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-poor communication rated as relatively severe problem across households --most sever in high-income households -drugs and infidelity rated more sever in low-income households -many aspects of marriage vary across cultures --traits people look for in marriage --domesticity is valued in some cultures but not others --religion plays a role in marial preferences

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premarital education

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-occurs in groups and focuses on relationship advice --programs range from several hours to 20 hours --recommended 6 months to 1 year before wedding -premarital education linked to higher level of marital satisfaction, commitment to spouse, lower level of destructive marital conflict, lower likelihood of divorce --beneficial for first and second marriages

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marriage

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-individuals who are happily married live longer, healthier lives --compared to divorced individuals or unhappily married individuals -positive effect of marriage on life span, with being married benefitting men's longevity more than women --unhappy marriage can shorten life by an average of 4 years

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divorce

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-Us has one of the highest divorce rates in the world

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factos increase likeliness of divorce

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-youthful marriages, low education level, low income, no religious affiliation, parents who are divorced, having a baby before marriage -alcoholism, psychological problems, domestic violence, infidelity, inadequate division of household labor -divorce increases between 5-9 years of marriage*****

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divorce

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-one of the most uncommon characteristics of divorced adults is difficulty trusting someone else in a romantic relationship -staying married because of children is main reason why many people take so long to become divorced -main reasons middle-aged and older adults cite for divorce: --women: verbal, physical, or emotional abuse; alcohol or drug abuse; cheating --men: no obvious problem, just fell out of love; cheating; different values or lifestyles

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social, financial, and physical consequences of divorce for older adults

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-weaken kinship ties -women less likely to have adequate financial resources -more health problems

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adults who remarry

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-adults who remarry usually do so quickly --approximately 50 percent within 3 years after divorce -remarried families are more likely to be unstable than first marriages --divorce more likely to occur than in first marriages -many remarry for financial reasons, help in rearing children, to ease loneliness --may carry negative patterns that produced failure in earlier marriages

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gay and lesbian relationships

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-are similar to heterosexual realtionships --many create families with children --more flexible gender roles than heterosexual -number of misconceptions about gay and lesbian couples --one partner is masculine and the other feminine is a stereotype --small segment of population has large number of sexual partners

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parenting

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-age of having children has been increasing over time --birth control is more of a common practice --marrying later and having children later or not at all

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What Makes Marriages Work

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-Gottman has conducted the most extensive research on what makes marriages work by interviewing couples, observing their interactions, and assessing their physiological functioning during interactions. Gottman has found seven main principles that determine whether a marriage will work or not -establishing love maps -nurturing fondness and admiration -turning toward each other instead of away -letting your partner influence you -overcoming gridlock -creating shared meaning -Other experts on marriage argue that such factors as forgiveness and commitment are important aspects of a successful marriage

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advantages of having children early (20's)

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-more physical energy -fewer medical problems with pregnancy and childbirth -fewer built-up expectations for children

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advantages of having children later (30's)

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-more time to consider goals in life -more mature, competent parents with more life experience -better established in a career and more income for child-rearing expenses

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the transition to parenting

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-parenthood creates disequilibrium and parents must adapt --most couples enjoy more positive marital relations before baby is born --almost 1/3 show increase in marital satisfaction

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the bringing home baby project

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workshop for new parents that helps couples strengthen relationship, resolve conflict, develop parenting skills -babies show better development overall

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parenting styles and discipline

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good parenting takes time and effort --quantity and quality of time parents spend with children matters

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Baumrind's parenting styles* ONE OF SHORT ANSWER TEST QUESTION-- list and describe in detail

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-authoritarian parenting -authoritative parenting -neglectful parenting -indulgent pareting

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authoritarian parenting

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sets many rules and expectations and guidelines, if you break it you are in trouble and get no say in the punishment

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authoritative parenting

answer

still sets rules, and guidelines, expectations, but are warmer about it and the children actually have a say in some of the rules and guidelines -if you break a rule you are involved in the discussion for punishment --best parenting style*

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neglectful parenting

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sets no rules, or expectations, not involved, doesn't really care what the child is doing or does

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indulgent parenting

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sets very few rules, is very involved in child's life, indulge in everything (spoiler) -regina gorge's mom from mean girls

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authoritative parenting

answer

-linked with child competence across a range of ethnic groups, social strata, cultures, and family structures --research with ethnic groups suggests that some aspects of authoritarian style may be associated with positive child outcomes

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parenting styles in context

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-spanking -time out can be effective

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limitations of parenting styles

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-do not capture themes of reciprocal socialization and synchrony -many parents use combination of techniques --one technique may be dominant -parents may have different styles

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corporal punishment

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is legal in every state in the US (spanking) -most individuals who are favorable of this punishment were likely to remember it being used by their parents -associated with higher levels of immediate compliance and aggression in children -linked to lower levels of moral internalization and mental health

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coparenting

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support that parents provide one another in jointly raising a child

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child maltreatment

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teachers and doctors and other professionals are required by law to report suspicions

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parent-adolescent relationships (autonomy and attachment)

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-adolescents push for autonomy and responsibility puzzles and upsets many parents -expectations about appropriate timing of adolescent autonomy vary across cultures, parents, and adolescents --boys given more independence than girls -the ability to attain autonomy and gain control over one's behavior in adolescence is acquired through appropriate adult reactions to the adolescent's desire for independence

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Parent-Adolescent Conflict

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-Increased conflict may be due to a number of factors including the biological changes of puberty, cognitive changes, social changes, maturational changes in parents, and the violation of parental and child expectations. -Conflict with parents is often highest during early adolescence and tapers off by late adolescence

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conclusion

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Although adolescents are moving toward independence, they still need to stay connected with families

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emerging adults

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-relationships with parents improve once they leave home --grow closer psychologically and share more information -challenges in parent-child relationship exist in emergent adult's \"adult status\" in many areas while still depend on parents in some manner

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working parents

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-Maternal employment is a part of modern life, but its effects are still debated.. -What matters for children's development is the nature of parents' work rather than whether one or both parents work outside the home

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children in divorced families

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-an estimated 40 percent of children born to married parents will experience their parent's divorce -children from divorced families show poorer adjustment than children from non-divorced families -experiencing multiple divorces places children at greater risk -Most researchers agree that children from divorced families show poorer adjustment than their counterparts in non-divorced families, including: academic problems, externalized problems, internalized problems, to be less socially responsible, to have less competent intimate relationships, to drop out of school, to become sexually active at an early age, to take drugs, to associate with antisocial peers, to have low self-esteem, and to be less securely attached as young adults. -Parents should consider the pros and cons of staying together for the sake of the children, as each case must be considered individually. -When divorced parents' relationships with each other are harmonious, and they use authoritative parenting, the adjustment of children improves

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Stepfamilies

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-There is a 10 percent higher divorce rate in remarriages than in first marriages. -Children in stepfamilies have more adjustment problems

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Gay Male and Lesbian Parents

answer

Gay male and lesbian couples are increasingly creating families that include children. -- Researchers have found few differences in children growing up with lesbian or gay parents and children growing up with heterosexual parents

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Adoptive Parents and Adopted Children

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-Adoption is the social and legal process by which a parent-child relationship is established between persons -Increased Diversity of Adoptive Children and Adoptive Parents

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Parenting Adopted Children

answer

-Adoptive parents may need to recognize the differences in adoptive family life, communicate about these differences, show respect for the birth family, and support the child's search for self and identity. -About age 4 to 6 is a natural time to begin to talk about a child's adoption status

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parenting

answer

-divorces can be advantageous if unhappy, conflictual marriage erodes well-being of children

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Sibling Relationships

answer

-Siblings may be influential socializing agents during childhood. -Sibling interactions can involve conflict, sharing, teaching, playing, providing emotional supports, and communication. -A recent study found that 65 percent of mothers and 70 percent of fathers showed favoritism toward one sibling. Favoritism is linked to lower self-esteem and sadness in the less favored sibling

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Dunn and importance of sibling relationships (3 characteristics)

answer

-emotional quality of the relationship -familiarity and intimacy of the relationship -variation of the relationship

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Birth Order

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-Birth order has been linked to the development of certain personality characteristics. -First-born children are more adult-oriented, helpful, conforming, self-controlled, and tend to be high achievers. They also have more guilt, anxiety, and difficulty in coping with stressful situations -approximately 80 percent of american children have one or more siblings -when siblings have conflict, parents: -intervene and try to help resolve conflict -admonish or threaten them -do nothing at all -sibling companionship declines when children become increasingly involved in world beyond family

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grandparent roles and styles

answer

-Three prominent meanings are attached to being a grandparent: biological continuity, emotional self-fulfillment, or a more remote role

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The Changing Profile of Grandparents

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-An increasing number of grandchildren are living with their grandparents.

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great grand-parenting

answer

Due to increased longevity, more grandparents today are also great-grandparents

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Intergenerational Relationships

answer

-Family is important to most people and connections between generations play important roles in development through the life span. -With each new generation, personality characteristics, attitudes, and values are replicated or changed

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birth order

answer

-has been linked to personality characteristics --first born children described as more adult-orientated, helpful, conforming, and self-controlled (same thing with only children) -variations in interactions with parents and siblings associated with specific position in family may produce birth-order effects

Developmental Psych Chapters 12,13,14

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