Chinese Flash Cards – Flashcards

• 1050 B.C. • "King Civil" or "Cultured King" • He came to power when he married a Shang King's daughter • Formed alliances with local armies / neighboring states and tribes in preparation for attacking the Shang • The king of Zhou who died before the climactic battle against the Shang, but it was won shortly after his death • First to sufficiently impress Heaven to receive "heaven's mandate" • He got a sign from heaven that told him that must conquer the Shang • This was convenient for the Zhou dynasty because it showed the dynasty was the will of God • He was the founder of the Zhou dynasty • His plans to overthrow the Shang were taken over by his son, King Wu, because he died • He died before he could fulfill the Mandate of Heaven and take over the Shang, so his son, King Wu, took over • Significant because it shows the power of the Shang in China, since he had to marry Shang royalty in order to get power • Proves the importance of heaven, since he got a sign from heaven to take over - and foreshadows the Mandate of Heaven that will be used later in the Zhou • Although it was his son Wu who conquered the Shang following the Battle of Muye, King Wen was honored as the founder of the Zhou dynasty

• 1043 B.C. • "Marshall king" • Son of King Wen • Conquered Shang • Son of Heaven • New capital (east) • He conquered the Shang - Zhou conquering the Shang is like Honduras conquering the US • He was able to conquer the Shang because of the Son of Heaven - there's a son of heaven who performs heavens will (and heaven can control everything), and people need to follow the son of heaven because heaven can appoint a new king whenever it wants, and if you don't follow the son of heaven then you will upset the heavens and bad things will happen • Took over his father's plans to rule as king with the mandate of heaven • He fulfilled his father's dying wish launched the expedition that succeeded in defeating the Shang army and taking its capital • Zhou dynasty was officially the central power in China • He established small feudal states under the rule of his brothers and other generals • Significance: Established political atmosphere and governance of China for the next few centuries, decentralized system that would eventually diminish rulers power because lose connections with territories over generations • Shows the power of the son of heaven, and the huge role that religion played in society

• Heaven • Ideology started in about 1045 B.C. (during Zhou) but continued for over a thousand years • Tian is an irresistible force associated with heaven whose will cannot be resisted on earth • There's a son of heaven that is heaven's representation on Earth • Tian chooses a son "tianzi" endowed with right to rule as "Heaven's Son" based on how much virtue he has displayed • Wants him to set up fair administration, be good to people • The king now has an obligation to act well towards the people or heaven will do something to dethrone him • People follow the son of heaven because it is heaven's will to have the king as the representative on Earth • Heaven made it more meaningful to be a part of society, because now all the people had an obligation to do good or heaven would be upset and a bad thing could happen • Popularized by the Duke of Zhou • It wants what is best for ordinary people; it is a good force • It was first used to support the rule of kings in the Zhou dynasty and their earlier overthrow of the Shang dynasty • Mandate of Heaven is a traditional Chinese philosophical concept concerning the legitimacy of rulers • The Mandate says that heaven will bless the authority of a just ruler • If the Son of Heaven fails obligation to rule with virtue, Heaven will withdraw the mandate, leading to the overthrow of the ruler • Power would be transferred to those who would rule best • This gave rulers an incentive to rule well, justly, and in the interest of the people • This becomes dominant element of Chinese political culture

• 722-481 B.C. • Decentralized Western Zhou had from the beginning carried the danger that regional lords would become so powerful that they'd ignore the king. This happened. • The Eastern Zhou dynasty was a period of political fragmentation and moral crisis • During these centuries, the Zhou kings continued to reign by default and only had nominal power while their vassals competed against each other • Although it was a very violent time, they studied diplomacy—the period had a code of chivalrous conduct that regulated warfare between the states, for example. • Over time military conflict became more intense, which led to the Warring states period • How does the Eastern Zhou relate to Spring and Autumn period? • A lot of the times they are synonymous, refers to the period during which the territorial lords power was increasing, becoming more independent from central authority and strengthening themselves and started to become interested in ideas that were circulating about state craft, military strategy, time of decline & decreased court power and great intellectual time • Because people going around shopping these great ideas to the territorial lords, "Golden Age of Chinese Philosophy" • All of these intelligent people trying to sell their ideas to the territorial lords - not really fighting, maybe some small affairs

• 453-221 B.C. • Warring States - second half of Eastern Zhou • More violent and more consolidated • Feudal domains of early Zhou came to function as independent states • Over time, the number of states rapidly declined as the more powerful ones conquered and absorbed their neighbors • There were 8 main states with violent and ruthless competition, but nevertheless there were social, technological, and economic advances including iron casting, infantry armies, coinage, private ownership of land, and social mobility • Not one of these rulers of fiefdoms dares to overthrow king of Zhou though because that'd be claiming the mandate of heaven now belongs to him (then all others would ally against him) • In the end, one state decides its powerful enough...Qin 256 BC overthrows Zhou, conquers everyone else because of their military prowess • Significance: Establishment of complex bureaucracies and centralized governments, legal system → reunites China under the Qin Dynasty

• 551-479 B.C. • Born in Lu, a small state in Shandong Province, Confucius wandered through neighboring states with disciples in search of a ruler receptive to his advice • He committed himself to trying to inspire people to do good, becoming China's first moral philosopher • He linked moral behavior to traditional roles and hierarchies • Great defender of the Zhou order • His ideal world: conventions govern actions and hierarchical differentiation resulted in harmonious coordination • Acts toward men are as important as those towards gods and ancestors • He thus extolled filial piety - reverent respect of children toward their parents, but it extends to everyone • He was a great teacher and people came to consult him and study traditions with him; he wanted to play a greater role in government so he prepared his students for careers in government service • After Confucius' death, his disciples decided that his teachings were so valuable, they had to be transmitted • His sayings recorded by disciples called Analects • He may not have written anything himself, indications he was reluctant to write anything because he valued the spontaneity of teaching face to face - he could tailor his teaching according to your needs/strengths/weaknesses • He was worried that if he wrote down what he taught, others would simply memorize and not think for themselves • He contrasted this with the reliance on the spirits in religion, he acknowledged that they existed, but said they didn't provide moral guidance • Significance: Confucianism influenced Chinese culture for centuries and is critical for understanding how society functioned; had political and legal influence, especially during Han Dynasty

• Most important virtue to Confucius: ren (homophone meaning human) • If you are a human you need to act with humanity • Many people would ask Confucius for his definition of humanity - he refuses to define humanity directly • Promote perfect goodness, benevolence, humanity • Deep concern for well-being of others • Virtue that every human should fulfill • Ren extended to everyone and was a virtue without hierarchical dimension • Confucius never specified was ren is, wanted students to think for themselves - emphasized human education and cultivation to reach benevolence • Significance: Has political influence - encourages rulers to rule humanely and take care of his people; had an impact on Chinese culture, concept was influential for many years • Important in setting precedence for later ideas of subservience • You need shu (reciprocity) and zhong (integrity) in order to have ren

• "Confucius' Golden Rule" • Rulers should treat subjects the way they would want to be treated by a ruler if they were a subject • "Do unto others as you wish they do unto you" • Must take social role into consideration • Started at the time of Confucius, but its influence extends beyond • A big part of humanity for Confucian thought • Important because it reflects one of the main Confucian ideas of respecting all people and acting filially towards all people • Relationship between 2 roles (not 2 people)—must be in same social role • Son + father occupy 2 different roles→how son treats father, not how father would treat son, but how he would want his son to have treated him • Significant because it reflects a value that Confucius would've wanted during the time that he lived - be good to others and they will be good back is important because of the huge amount of war that was in China when Confucius lived

1. Zheng - Moral rectitude • Improving yourself or helping someone improve morally 2. Zheng - Proper governance • Purpose of government is helping people become better and more human, shouldn't be motivated by profit • The person who rules should teach others morals • Started at the time of Confucius, but its influence extends beyond • The two zheng's are connected - Confucius believed government (zheng) was very important, but he also believed that government had to have zheng (rectitude) when they governed • Confucius' metaphor for government was different from ours, we think government is "steering" or navigating our ship - imbedded principle of progress, in Confucius' mindset it is moral rectification • Significant because it shows that the ideal leader for Confucius should be one with morals - kind of takes away from the importance of the son of heaven • Also significant because it shows that most of the leaders during the warring state period lacked morals and good standards

• 372-289 B.C. • The first important successor to Confucius • He claims to be a student of Confucius's grandson, but that is highly unlikely • Like Confucius, he traveled the country offering advice to rulers • Mencius argues that government is not about benefit (worried that people would get greedy) • Role of government is moral instruction, not to improve people's wealth • His conversations with Kings are recorded in the book, Mencius, chosen by Zhu Xi during the Song dynasty as one of the Four Books of Confucianism • Mencius showed concern for the common people and reminded rulers of the Mandate of Heaven and to treat their people well • He also debated moral philosophy and believed in the innate goodness of the individual, proof found in the spontaneous responses of all people to the suffering of others • He said lack of a positive cultivating influence and educational guidance was what caused bad moral character • Twist on notion of material well-being (Confucius said it's okay to let people suffer a little bit) • Mencius said if they're starving, make sure they're not starving. Then bring about moral obligations • Have their basic needs met

• Heaven puts the beginnings of virtue inside every human: 1 - Humanity 2- Righteousness 3- Ritual 4- Wisdom • The Four Beginnings siduan are like four limbs of innate goodness One should use them and let them flourish. If there were an infant about to fall into a well, you'd just spontaneously go and run to help. The Spark impels you to act upon instinct and you must build upon instinct. Every human being has the capacity to be moral but not everyone does—some people are lazy, some people don't care Mencius expanded on Confucius' teachings, related to Mencius' nature that human nature is good • Human beings have the capacity to become good (not that they necessarily will but that they can with effort because heaven put the four beginnings (four virtues) in your heart)) • Not everyone is wise, righteous, etc. because they might have decided not to develop these beginnings that heaven gave them, and then destroyed their own beginnings and became evil • Mencius compares the four beginnings to sprouts, have to take care of them and they will grow • If there were an infant about to fall into a well, you'd just spontaneously go and run to help • The Spark impels you to act upon instinct and you must build upon instinct • Every human being has the capacity to be moral but not everyone does—some people are lazy, some people don't care

• 310 - 220 BC • He criticized Mencius' view that human nature was good • He had much more political and administrative experience that Confucius and Mencius • Showed consideration for the difficulties that rulers might face in trying to rule with ritual and virtue • Unlike Confucius and Mencius, Xunzi believed that human nature is evil • Moral development has to be taught. Only through education and guiding can one become good (compassion is learned) • In addition to education, he also emphasized the importance of traditional ritual practices • A ruler must perfect his own virtue to govern well • One must change oneself before one can change other people or improve the world

• Confucius used this term - one of Four Beginnings • System of character building ceremonies that sages left behind for us to help us become better people because they knew that without this aid we would probably fail • System of practicable conducts, moral teaching that would allow you to reflect on your behavior / improve yourself • You can't create new rituals • Need to do more than just follow rituals, but must also think about moral principles embodied in the actions, then one will truly understand rituals • Confucius and Mencius say that the inward emotions related to the outward act • I.e. wearing a mourning cloak, but it is crucial that the ritual behavior proceeds from real emotion and intention to mourn

• 480 - 390 B.C. • Name means: Ink, tattoo (tattoo master) • Went to Confucius school, couldn't stand it, dropped out • Mohism was seen as a major rival to Confucianism • According to Mo Di, you shouldn't treat others differently from your family and friends • He believes in Jian ai (name of his theory)- indiscriminate love/universal love—love all people equally just as we love ourselves • Mo Di saw errors with Confucian philosophy (didn't believe you should treat those who are closer to you better) • He said that obligation to the family is not most important (like Confucius and Mencius believed) because he said sole obligation to the family brought favoritism and nepotism • He advocated Universal Love: no violence among people, people should love each other as much as they love themselves • Reflects the ideas of the warring state period: significant because his anti-war sentiments are reflective that people didn't like the feuding in China • Spent time advising states helping threatened kings withstand evil endeavors by other kings • Mohists try to convince rulers not to be so aggressive or conquer neighbors • Didn't last past Warring states because when Emperor claimed absolute power, universal love is no longer realistic! • Mo Di and his followers were experts in warfare (how to defend a city)

• 600 B.C • Laozi was a Chinese sage and record keeper in the Zhou dynasty court • Dao - "great mother" indescribable energy, natural pattern • If you act in accordance with Dao, you'll inevitable succeed because you'll have the power of nature at your back • He wrote the Daode jing - Canon of the Way and Potency - that was so unlike the conventional way of thinking • Laozi argues that it would be better if people knew less • Unlike Confucians, who were activist, Daoists believed in being less assertive and giving up purposeful action • Any purposeful action is counterproductive and ruler should allow a return to a natural state in which ppl are ignorant and content • Concerned with protecting each person's life

• The literal meaning of Wuwei is "without action." • Wuwei is often associated with water • Don't try to swim upstream (nonaction) • Though water is soft and weak, it has the power to erode a rock • Every sage should try to be more like water, using soft and invisible power • Daoists believe that human contrivance (unnatural/false appearance) upsets the natural order of things • Don't fight natural processes, but harness them • The universe is stronger than you • People should choose yielding over assertiveness, and silence over words • Any purposeful action is counterproductive • Yielding > Assertive • Silence > words • Ex. If playing an instrument, once you start thinking about playing the instrument, then you will interfere with your playing • Significant because it shows the mentality of the warring states period that there was so much turmoil that some thought people should just take no action • Also important because it denigrate the power of the government

369-286 BCE • A text inspired/written by Zhuang Zhou - it's a heterogeneous text written by many though • Less pressure to manipulate life's outcomes and simply accept one's situation; people should seek true joy of existing • True joy comes from understanding and accepting your place in the universe • It emphasizes trying to find your place in the universe - do new things to see where you belong • Sharing ideas from Laozi, it emphasizes not to try to counter the natural pattern, accept it • Said that the way to an unhappy life is to focus on materialism • Instead want the true joy that comes from accepting the universe, celebrate spiritual freedom • Rational reasoning between courses of action was not as important as simply knowing • You need a lot of practice to learn non-action, as well as a lot of practice to remove desire • Significant because it shows a contrasting view to the Way - that pure knowledge is the most important thing

390-338 BC • He was a Chief minister statesman of the Qin during the Warring States period • He made Qin most disciplined state • Lord Shang imposes measures to strengthen power of ruler to create stronger and stronger state • Lord Shang believed in empowering the farmers and soldiers and taking power from the scholars and merchants (get rid of traditional privileges and exceptions) • He places an emphasis on meritocracy and development of power from nobility • New concept of social organization: what matters is how much service one has rendered to the state • Recommended that rulers objectively give out rewards and punishments based solely on merit (believed in the concept of fa, which means standards/merits) • Significance: Assisted Qin in its change to a militarily powerful and strongly centralized kingdom; concentration on proposing political solutions to disorder and techniques for accumulation of power (used by smart rulers); importance of service to state

• 281-233 BC • Wrote most of the philosophy about fa (standard/merits) • Han Fei was a Chinese philosopher during the Warring States Period • Unlike most other famed philosophers, he was a member of the ruling aristocracy • In response to the chaos of the time, he wrote a book in 233 BC, Han Feizi • His main point was that strong government depends not on the moral qualities of the ruler, as Confucians claimed • But rather on establishing effective institutional structures (fa) • He urged rulers to be firm but consistent • He also emphasized laws and argued they be clear and the rewards and punishments automatic • Known for his philosophy of fa • fa (standard; method) • Impersonal administrative techniques that ruler should use to solidify position at top of pyramid in order to make use of all resources • Law applies to EVERYONE • State can take privileges away from you (steer away from tradition) tear down tradition of privilege via bloodrights • Significance: Ideas got people to work hard and win wars; led to establishment of Qin

• 259-210 BC • Qin Shi Huang (Zheng) was the First emperor to unify China, conquered all other states • Hanfei school of thought -> more law-abiding and strict • Major projects: first Great Wall of China, Terracotta Army, national road system • To ensure stability, he outlawed and burned many books, buried some scholars alive • Was very harsh and cruel, imposed uniformity on China; didn't tolerate criticism of China • Standardized the script/written language, weights/measurements, axel length measurements for carts • Created a strongly bureaucratic form of government • Significance: Pivotal figure, ushered in almost two millenia of imperial rule, wasn't popular because of strict laws and standardization; China lost a lot of its heritage

• 235 B.C. • Influential merchant who was appointed as Prime Minister by scheming his way into Qin government • Served as the Chancellor for the King of Qin's son, who eventually became the first Emperor of Qin • Rumor was that he plotted with the Queen Dowager in order to permit her to carry on many illicit sexual relationships including one with Lao Ai • Implicated in plotting with Queen Dowager and her lover and killed • May have been the First Emperor's father, so First Emperor may have been illegitimate (here is that story): • Lu Buwei agreed to bribe people in order to make Zhichu the next successor • Zhichu asks for Lu Buwei's girlfriend, he doesn't know that she is already pregnant with Lu Buwei's son • Eventually Zhichu becomes emperor, and gives birth to the first emperor with Lu Buwei's ex-girlfriend (Empress Dowager) • Patronizes all intellectuals • He organized philosophers and people - wants them to make a book about political principles that'll underlie Qin • Lushi chunqiu (Springs and Autumns of Mr. Lu) - encyclopedic Chinese classic text compiled around 239 BCE under the patronage of the Chancellor Lu • Extensive passages on such subjects as music and agriculture • After Zichu died, his widowed wife became sexually frustrated, and she wanted Lu Buwei. Lu Buwei felt guilty about doing that, so he found the man with the biggest penis in China, and he faked being a eunuch so he could get into the imperial court and sleep with the mother-in-law of the emperor. The mother and the eunuch have kids, and so the emperor finds out about the scheme. King Zheng banishes Lu Buwei. • In his banishment, Lu Buwei gets scholars/theorists to write the Springs and Autumns of Mr. Lu (all movements in cosmos obeys fundamental rules that govern all matter→if learn these rules can dominate universe) (nothing to do with virtue + no dynasty is permanent) • Qin Shi Huangdi felt threatened by the power of Lu Buwei, so he sent him a sword (which indicates that you should commit suicide) • Significant because it shows that the Springs and Autumns of Mr. Lu was a way for Lu Buwei to give suggestions to the Qin government • Significant because shows the extreme fear rulers have of others who become famous for achievements of their own • Important because it shows the disloyalty that government officials have to the emperor, which proves the ideas of Han Feizi

• 208 B.C. • First Emperor's Chief Counselor • He was a foreigner who studied with Xunzi • Banned most books (Confucius books), he didn't want to lose power, he didn't want Confucian government criticizing government • We don't want normal people thinking they should make political recommendations • He wanted government to be a meritocracy, you don't promote people familial ties • Called for destruction of all heterodox books (eradicated books that discussed Qin Shi Huang's rule in comparison with past rulers) • Tells Qin Shi Huang how to unify China • Ruler of Qin goes and tells assassins to kill scholars who don't support • He was central to the state's policies, including those on military conquest, draconian centralization of state control, standardization of weights, measures and the written script, and persecution of Confucianism and opponents of Legalism • His methods of administration of China are seen by some as being an early form of totalitarianism • Soon after Lu Buwei was forced to commit suicide, Li Si became a new political figure • Strayed from the Zhou tradition of breaking up the country into territorial lords, etc

201-169 BC • Knew the Confucius texts, studied in Confucian school • Argues that people that have studied Confucius teachings can help avoid mistakes of past and are crucial to the success of the gov • He was a Han statesman • Wrote Essay on the Transgressions of Qin (Guo Qin Lun) that described where the Qin went wrong = retrospective essay • Why is it that the Qin government was repeating the mistakes of the past? • Denigrated education • Theorized that the Qin empire was too cruel to survive because it didn't have support of populace • Qin didn't, but should have emphasizes education • They emphasized building army and infrastructure but not education—lots of tactical mistakes • Maybe they could have avoided this disaster • Shifts importance back on Confucian methods • Significance: Confucian masters best at education, paved the way for longtime endured respect for Confucian tradition

• 247-195 BC • First emperor of the Western Han • Liu Bang (Gaozu) was the victor and became the first King of Han • Moved capital to Chang'an • Disbanded armies and allowed soldiers to return home • Reduced taxes and emphasized Confucianism (which soon replaced Legalism) • Rewarded old comrades with large territories to govern as vassal states - bad because he dispersed power which is dangerous • When one of the territorial lords got too much power, he would bring up charges against them and confiscate their stuff • Challenge was to develop form of centralized power but not too harsh • Liu Bang had no particular skills, wasn't a great warrior • Liu Bang was able to beat Xiang Yu, who struggled to take power from him • He was a benevolent and righteous King unlike Qin emperors • Significant because he shows the resurgence of Confucianism in government and the importance that it played in government in China

141-87 B.C. • 7th emperor of the Han dynasty • He was the key figure in strengthening the Han government apparatus (instruments, system) • He curbed the power of feudal lords while establishing an autocratic, centralized state • He also aggressive in foreign policy and brought scholars to the capital • He is remembered for vastly expanding Chinese territory, which nearly doubled in size under his rule • He originally began by fighting with the Xiongnu, but eventually Emperor Wu realized war was really expensive and it would be cheaper just to pay off the Xiongnu to keep peace (although not all Xiongnu people listened to this because all the Xiongnu tribes weren't really unified) • 139 BCE, Emperor Wu sent Zhang Qian to the west to find allies - on Zhang Qian's second voyage, he found some very sophisticated societies to trade with, and this expanded the Han's reach • His legacy is also because he embraced Confucianism, ruling under Confucian notions • Also instituted policy of dividing domains as they are passed down (diminishing size with each generation) • Curbed power of merchants (state monopolies and commercial taxes) • Rung people up on witchcraft charges • Significance: vast territorial expansion, organized strong centralized Confucian state, cited as one of the greatest in Chinese history and the greatest of the Han, under his reign Han was one of the most powerful in the world. First time in Chinese history that the Chinese expanded their influence outside of its borders

• Flourished around the beginning of the Han, so about 200 BCE • First great confederation of pastoral nomadic tribes on the northern steppes, northwest of Han • They were not really an empire, just an alliance between tribes who agreed to fight together when circumstances were profitable • They were mounted nomads who were skilled horsemen and shooters, and perceived as a threat to the Han dynasty • Their military advantage such as mounted warfare allowed them to steal from the Han • Their way of life was threatened by the Han • Han started spreading into their territory which was needed for their movable lifestyle • So, Han tried trading with them (salt, iron, liquor) against Confucian belief • They had alternating war-peace relations with the Han Dynasty • At one point they defeated the Han, capturing Liu Bang • Liu Bang comes to agreement with them - trade silk • There's no succession to the thrown in the Xiongnu, whoever kills everyone else becomes the next leader • The Han leaders would pay off the Xiongnu not to fight, although not all Xiongnu listened to this because they weren't really unified • The Xiongnu eventually collapsed because they killed themselves, there was not a bit of unity so people were constantly fighting with each other • After the Xiongnu collapsed, they became vassals of the Han government, but this hurt the Han economically because the Han wasn't strong enough to support such a large territory • Significance: Xiongnu represents an important threat that foreshadows the presence and continual threat of Steppe/ barbarians on Chinese dynasties - especially the later Uighurs, Jurchens, Mongols, and even Manchus • Eventually, the Xiongnu fell because there was no strong leadership and broke up into five contending groups in 55 BC

• Peasant rebellion / Popular uprising • Around 200 CE, the collapse of the Han • Yellow Turbans at the end of the Han dynasty with very strange beliefs • DAOISM IS THEIR RELIGION • They wore yellow because next dynasty was going to be yellow (not red), namely rebellious commoners • New religion that believes change from red to yellow means EVERYTHING will change (yellow=earthly form) • Earth phase of qi would replace fire; sky would turn yellow, it'd be a very earthy time • Public sex rituals • They found support from many peasants which were undergoing hard times under the Han leadership • A major cause of the rebellion was an agrarian crisis, in which famine forced many farmers and former military settlers in the north to seek employment in the south, where large landowners exploited the labor surplus to amass large fortunes • They were not unique • History has ridiculed them and judged their beliefs to be wrong because they rebelled and they were put down (wasn't so much their beliefs as the fact that they made a political statement and failed) • Known for setting up charitable institutions for poor landless families that have nowhere to go and communal sex ceremonies • Significance: indicative of weakening Han empire, misery of common people, importance of religious ideology plays in the minds of the people • Han Dynasty had to rely on local forces to control the rebellions, and therefore local warlords strengthened their own armies which caused the Han to fall apart (lack of unification) • Many thought this was a symbol of government losing power and dynasty losing usefulness if this was allowed to go on • Affirms the instability of the Han military and the power of the feudal lords, shows the recurring legacy of the Zhou Dynasty

• 200 B.C. • Encyclopedia to be used for governing • Thought to have been commissioned by a Western Han prince (Liu An, Prince of Huainan) • Gives specific explanations - one of these explanations is the Five Phases of Qi and Immortality • The 5 phases of Qi refers not only to the succession of dynasties, but also how one can be successful by aligning their behavior with the seasons and the natural crests and troughs of Qi • Desire to unify the different philosophies at the time • Wanted to create the ideological blueprint for the entire empire and could apply to everything • Like an updated version of Springs and Autumns (similar thinking, unite philosophies to establish strong imperial power) • Like a blueprint for governing in accordance with five phases, qi, astronomical thought, etc

• Qi makes up all the things in the universe but it comes in different types and grades • This new theory relies on a book called Five Phases of Qi (matter/energy that makes up the entire world, living and nonliving) • You can "plot" the life cycle of Qi through the five phases (Water, Metal, Fire, Wood, Earth) • Old theory: Heaven's mandates (based on virtue of ruler—chosen by ruler) • In this amoral system, dynasties are replaced at the appropriate time (Dynastic succession occurs according to phases) • Qi makes up all stuff of universe but comes in different types. You can plot life cycle of qi through 5 phases: wood, fire, water, earth, metal • Ex) seasons (in spring, qi is in woody phase; summer is hot and fiery; autumn things decay - good time for fighting one another - metal; winter is cold like water) as example of how qi cycle works; earth is in middle • This theory pretended to provide you with all the information you needed to know to take over the world through a careful analysis of the troughs and crests of Qi • However, it was very difficult to put into practice and ultimately died out in several centuries. It survived in medicine even till today

• 145-86 B.C. • Produced first complete written history in pre-modern China • It's called Shiji (Records of the Historian) • Son of Sima Tan, who originally had the idea of writing the history of China and started this • Piece started by father, Sima Tan, who watched the stars - set down calendar (lunar calendar to fit stars properly) • As Sima Tan dying, he asks his son to finish it • Sima Qian - regarded as father of historiography • Historiography was becoming very important in the Han dynasty • Recorded events associated with stars, provided format of official history writing in pre-modern China • Great writer—unique voice • Typically you commit suicide after you get castrated but he chose to live on

• The Annals, part of the Shiji, or Records of Historian, recorded year by year account of main events under each emperor • Monographs heavily observed by historians • Also inserted chronological tables into book as a way of dating all events (not reliable) • Section of biographies which recount lives of individuals "through which history flowed" or faced important hardships and overcame them

• 45-116 A.D. • Ban family decided to write history - just the facts of Han history • Very reserved, dryer version of just Han history (rather than overlapping history) • Han Shu (History of Han) • Bang Gu's younger sister (Ban Zhao) greatly contributed • She wrote the "Admonitions for women" really conservative—women are weak and shouldn't work • Preaches obedience, subservience, • Focus on roles assigned to you • Very Confucian but applied to women • She's considered one of the most educated women of her time

• Discourse of Salt and Iron • A debate on state policy during the Han Dynasty in China • The previous emperor, Emperor Wu, had reversed the laissez-faire policies of his predecessors imposed a wide variety of state interventions, such as monopolies on salt and iron, price stabilization schemes, and taxes on capital, which had sparked fierce debate • The government came up with the idea of creating state owned monopolies that are demand inelastic, labor intensive, and relevant to national security (Salt, Iron, Liquor, Silk) • Everyone needs salt to preserve food - highly labor intensive product, demand tends to be inelastic • After his death, during the reign of Emperor Zhao of Han, the regent Huo Guang called on all the scholars of the empire to come to the capital, Chang'an, to debate the government's economic policies • 2 opposing factions in the debate: Reformists (largely Confucian scholars) and Modernists (largely government officials) • The reformists - largely Confucian scholars who were opposed to the policies of Emperor Wu, and who demanded abolition of the monopolies on salt and iron, an end to the state price stabilization schemes, and huge cuts in government expenditures to reduce the burden of the citizenry • The Modernists - supported the continuation of Emperor Wu's policies in order to appropriate the profits of private merchants into state coffers to fund the government's military and colonization campaigns in the north and west. Government had a fiscal problem paying off Xiongnu every year • Modernists supporting the monopoly - a lot of their arguments are "this is just how things have to be done" - "pragmatic approach" • Reformists - Confucians/scholars arguing from "classics" - Mencius taught that government was only about controlling the morality of the people and entering the market was an abuse of power. • This text details an important debate between modernists (let govt get involved) and reformers (believe it's not the govt's place) about government monopolization on certain essential and non-essential products • Significance: one of most important sources on development of ironing technology and economic conditions in Western Han

• 27-100AD • Seen as an early rationalist (but not really rational in a modern sense) • One of his arguments - immortals cant fly because people who become immortal don't have feathers and the only thing that can fly without feathers is a dragon • This rational thinker criticized the Five Phases system as being flawed • Wrote Lunheng (Balance of Discourses) • Writes about stupid things people believe • Explains why they need to be corrected • Show how preposterous qi is. ex) animals don't follow qi • Fantastic speculation that someone just dreamt up • Very different conception of what constitutes common sense • Ex. Dragons can't fly, they merely sit on clouds • Significance: First philosophy that addressed scientific thought, a reaction to the state that philosophy had reached China with rational and naturalistic account of world

• A.D. 155-220 (220 is an important year) • Most important of the generals • Not fextremely wealthy - came from a lower to middle class military family • But through his military/organizational genius, he became a famous "strongman" and famous general • Most modern military force in the world; literate, accomplished son • Assigned to put down Yellow Turbans • Portrayed as a cruel and merciless, but a great ruler and military genius who treated subordinates like family; integrated many different types of military units • Praised as the first person with a combined arms fighting force (traditional Chinese foot soldiers and auxiliaries - non-Chinese, Xiongnu) - very sophisticated army • Rose to great power during Eastern Han Dynasty's last years • Significance: Laid the foundations for the state of Cao Pi (his son who founded the Wei Dynasty)

• ~200 A.D (3rd Century) • Eastern Han falls, civil war, and three kingdoms end up forming • The three kingdoms were Wei, Shu, and Wu • In a strict academic sense it refers to the period between the foundation of the state of Wei in 220 and the conquest of the state Wu by the Jin Dynasty in 280 • However, many Chinese historians and laymen extend the starting point of this period back to the Yellow Turban Rebellion in 184 • Break in unified China • Each state was lead not by kings, but by emperors who claimed legitimate succession from the Han Dynasty • Early infighting between warlords, followed by a militarily stable arrangement between the rival states, then the collapse • Essentially a century of military struggles: Wei conquers Shu, Jin overthrows Wei, Jin destroys Wu • Significance: reflects the disunity in China after the collapse of the Han

• This period came after the collapse of the Han, characterized by constant warfare and strife. Many kingdoms were ruled by non-Chinese • Time of civil war and political chaos, but also innovations in art and culture, technology, Buddhism • North of China - • Stagnant position has natural advantage because dryer • Defenders have advantage • Need a big band of raiders since horses can just run on land • Great fighting force (a lot of fighting for control), but no political force • Not much economic production belligerent and anarchic lifestyle not sustainable leading to the formation of the Northern Wei • South of China - • Moister, marshier; mounted fighting force has a natural advantage • Attackers have advantage • Need to attack south with combined arms • Need rivering navy to secure shipping roots • Not capable of conquering North • The Landed Class • Buddhism gaining popularity (rejection of old ideology) • Highly regarded by aristocracy, a period of new ideas and ways of thinking • Significance: time of political chaos and disunity, but see the spread of Buddhism and other cultural/technological advances, power could not be concentrated

• 439 - 534 A.D • Emperor Xiaowen had desire to transform this state to true Chinese dynasty, so moved the capital south and integrated Xianbei people with Chinese traditions • Emperor said let's start conquering capital in south to a more opulent area but it came with neglect of northern frontier • Dynasty failed because they tried to set sights on South too early • Old Northern Wei capital in cold and dry area in power center (defensible) • Instituted govt different from past because not traditional ties to Chinese government • North had a lot of deserted, uncultivated land • Xianbei people transform the north by forcing population relocation • Gave every family a piece of land to redevelop • Land belongs to state, taxes were collected • Period of chaos, but spread of Buddhism and Daoism • The Northern Wei dynasty was primarily focused on the landed class • To avoid taxes, wealthy people took up Buddhism and gave their wealth to daughters who then worked as nuns • It was during this period that Buddhism really caught on • The "model" that the Northern Wei forged was the answer to the way out of this fragmentation type of government • The Buddhist gained notoriety, especially in the South, as a religion of refuge • Buddhism also blossomed in the North because of the non-Chinese groups that began ruling found this as an acceptable ideology (Domination and Insertion) • Past Chinese philosophies viewed the Chinese as superior people • Established a sino-hybrid state: military affairs led by Chinese generals and administrative issues given to the literate people • Stability was brief and was disrupted by rebellions • Significance: unification of northern China in 439 A.D. during the fragmented period

• 142 AD • Chinese Daoist movement founded by Zhang Daoling • These Daoist "priests" were immensely popular particularly in Southern China during the Eastern/Later Han period • The Celestial Masters believed that there was a Celestial Hierarchy that watched what people did and punished/rewarded people accordingly - God sent illness is a celestial retribution for sin • Government was nearly bankrupt, near anarchy as state is unable to protect ordinary people • Sheltered from warfare due to geography (area of safe haven) • Enthusiastic cooperation of members of own sect • Claim to heal ailments too • Celestial masters can handle illnesses through divination and communication with demons; role of spirit healing • Didn't rebel against Han (unlike yellow turbans) so didn't take the fall • Celestial Masters set up hospices that allowed people to eat free food • This intrigued poor people and contributed to the supply of basic institutions to ordinary people • They funded themselves through labor they attracted • This could only become strong enough to attract thousands of followers (ordinary people) because of the complete breakdown of terrestrial leadership • They did not rebel against the Han so they were deemed legitimate • They had similar beliefs of Yellow Turbans but because Yellow Turbans rebelled, they were deemed illegitimate

• 3rd Century A.D. • Group of scholars, writers, and musicians that came together from Luoyang • Shunned society and political life • Retreated to country side to engage in refined activities such as purse conversation, drinking tea, and playing musical people • Defied convention and Confucian principles of Eastern Jin (Eccentric People) • The group wished to escape the corruption and stifling atmosphere of court life during the politically fraught Three Kingdoms period of Chinese history • They gathered in a bamboo grove where they enjoyed, and praised in their works, the simple, rustic life • This was contrasted with the politics of court • The Seven Sages stressed the enjoyment of ale, personal freedom, spontaneity and a celebration of nature

• Qingtan involved witty conversation or debates about metaphysics and philosophy • Appealed to upper class people who liked to attend soirees • It was especially popular in the south during the Southern and Northern dynasties among the educated elite • The most prominent practitioners of qingtan were the Seven Worthies of the Bamboo Grove

• Chinese for "enlightened person" - "spiritually immortal" • Notions of immortality that aren't associated with specific belief system • Can become immortal from preserving qi • There is a lot of qi in sperm • Xian (transcendent [person]; immortal) - don't eat cereals (harvested grains), only eat nature's bounty (pine needles, dew, etc.), light and look young, tend to not eat very much, live off in mountains • These people believed that one way to achieve longevity is to renounce the consumption of cereals • Involves taichi, alchemy, etc.

• (283-343 AD) • Bibliophile - has access to a lot of books • Wrote Baopuzi (The Master Embracing Simplicity) • Philosopher during the Jin Dynasty was an alchemist • Wrote a text on how to make the elixir of immortality • He was not against Confucian moral principles • Known for his interest in alchemy, Daoism, and techniques of longevity • Evidence of self-poisoning - can also eat herbs, have sex, and meditate • Talks about how to become immortal • Queen Mother West became immortal through a lot of sexual intercourse • Significance: demonstrates influence of notable essayists and thinkers from the Han period like Sima Qian, influenced scholars in Tang Dynasty like Li Bai, his works are essential for understanding early medieval Chinese religion and culture

• 605 - 609 A.D. • The Grand Canal was first built by the Sui in 605-609 (Emperor Wen of Sui) • This was revolutionary because it first linked the North and South parts of China, and the north was able to finally take advantage of the Yangzi valley and its fertility • Most rivers in china flow west to east, which has a couple of consequences • Shipping west to east is much cheaper than north to south (have to go overland, there are bandits—dangerous and unpredictable) • The new Sui rulers are deeply concerned about fact that they've just unified China, a realm including the north and the south, and they don't want to see a slippage back into the north and south being divided by politics, economics, agriculture, etc. • SO ... built a the grand canal • This was used to transport everything from crops to messages to soldiers • Eventually, imperial roads and post stations were built along the canal • It shows how powerful they were, and played a role in unification by encouraging communication between different regions, promoting culture flow, and increasing commercial activity • Another main purpose was transportation of troops and food for the army. • The canal extended almost 1,200 miles and allowed the government to draw on the growing wealth of the Yangzi valley to support both the government in the capital and military garrisons along the frontier • The new long distance supply system obviated the need for army to be self-supporting because supplies could be brought from north to south.

581-618 A.D. • New capital of Sui dynasty: Largest city in world at the time (or so it was claimed) • Lots of poetry and wine drinking • Surrounded by city walls; locked gates after certain time • Cosmopolitan urban center with considerable foreign populations • Chang'an's heyday was during this period - unique layout influenced planning of other Asian capitals

626 - 649 A.D. • Ruled in the Tang dynasty and was a benevolent ruler despite his aggressive attainment of power - he killed his brothers and forced his father to abdicate • He was courteous to his counselors and listened to his ministers' advice and remonstrations • In terms of economic improvements, he revived the economy and alleviated social tensions • He perfected the imperial examination system and promoted intercultural exchanges and foreign trade • His examination system is one of the reasons that he had able advisors • He ruled an extensive territory that covered both the Chinese and the non-Chinese (Turks) • Considered himself just as much Turkish as he was Chinese • Typically considered one of the greatest, if not the greatest, emperors in Chinese history • Throughout the rest of Chinese history, Emperor Taizong's reign was regarded as the exemplary model against which all other emperors were measured • Golden age: flourished economically and militarily; destroyed eastern Turkish power • Played the turks and khitans against each other and had the turks help him defeat khitans and then turned on turks; ruled over China and the steppe

• 624-705 A.D. • Concubine, stepped in and took charge when her husband Gao Zong died • Such powerful connections that it wasn't possible to dislodge her • Declared herself Empress Wu • She broke all precedents when she founded her own dynasty in 690, the Zhou • "Second Zhou", only woman who took role of Chinese emperor in history • Lots of problems getting people to accept her • The only woman to be emperor of China during Tang dynasty (690-705) who was as ruthless as Taizong • After accomplishing this rare feat, she slowly gathered power and eventually won over the people by circulating texts about a Goddess bringing great peace • She had amazing skill at handling court conflicts • She favored Buddhism since it's a religion where gender is not an issue, and used it to legitimize her reign • She suppressed rebellions of Tang princes and maintained an aggressive foreign policy • Her hold on the government was so strong that she did not stop ruling until her 80's

• 703-757 AD • This person is of Central Asian origin • Having gained the emperor's trust as a military governor, he staged a coup, forcing the Tang emperor to flee the capital • Xuan Zong makes him really powerful / strong military power • A person of mixed race who expected to rule as Chief Minister but did not - this led to a huge rebellion that led to the fall of Tang • The An Lushan Rebellion in 755 marked the turning point of Tang power • However, in 757, his own son murdered him • His rebellion was eventually crushed with the government asking help from the Uighurs, but it made the Tang overly dependent on the Uighurs and once the Uighurs got weak, Tang got weak • People blame Consort Yang for the rebellion because she distracted Emperor Xuanzong, which was why he became overly dependent on An Lushan • Significance: Was vital in helping defend against the Turks and other possible threats, the rebellion was a turning point in the history of the Tang (central government lost control over Chinese territory that should be governed by military commissioners with political consequences, economy was disturbed)

• Turkish ethnic group in Central Asia who were invited to help put down the rebellion • They were the only people who could help • After tang dynasty was restored, Uighurs made sure they profited in their role in saving dynasty by selling horses through treaties at huge prices of silk • Tang paid as thank you gesture • They built tremendous city out on the steppe with this wealth • Tang was able to survive for roughly a century because they had the backing of the Uighur power to the north • They collapsed in the 9th century

• A.D. 653 • Correct Meaning of the Five Canons • 5 Confucian Canons Project assigned to direct descendant of Confucius, Kong Yingda; took many years to put it together, endorsed by government • Kong Yida, but he died before it was finished, first coupe of volumes by him and then someone took his place • Imperial edition of 5 classics with best commentaries from Northern and Southern dynasties • Intended as a tool to try to break the monopoly of these landed families on power • Virtually everything we know about Northern and Southern dynasties (commentaries) is because their opinions were documented in these texts • Dictating for all posterity how northern and southern dynasty commentary would be read (because their originals don't exist anymore) so they have left us what they wanted us to see • Government Agenda: "See how disunited the world used to be (you had scholars from north saying one thing and south saying another) now that we unified china we can unify all opinion..." - imperial government silently passes judgment by selecting which opinions to include, but imperial commentary doesn't necessarily say this one is right this one is wrong • Was the normal teaching material for scholar and imperial examinations during the Tang and Song dynasties • Purpose: aid students in preparation for civil service exams • Purpose of exams? • 1. Make sure people in govt have basic qualifications • 2. To try to destroy power of hereditary families • In the past, people entered civil service through connections which led to apathetic bureaucracy (no inclination or talent to work to create centralized state) • Real power was derived from people who got it from their land holding • Civil service exams require a lot of studying (family needs to afford books, tutor, etc.) so already cut out a lot of society • Significance: Chinese Confucian history, unification of the five texts, preparation for civil service examination (method of appointing state bureaucrats)

• 768-824 A.D. • Credited with starting the Confucian revival called Neo-confucianism • A "die hard" Confucian in the Tang period, this philosopher was known for his unapologetic stance against Buddhism • Sees it as a great tragedy that people are steering away from Confucianism • He thought the whole reason Han collapsed was that Daoism and Buddhism came about • He believes Daoism and Buddhism are inimical to social and political order as it confuses Confucian hierarchical order • Daoism didn't focus on moral values • Buddhism was an alien religion from India • Great essayist and poet; very influential in Chinese literary tradition • Reaffirmed Confucian classics as basis of good education and writing and a precursor to Neo-Confucianism • Feels that Confucianism would strengthen the government

• 701-763 A.D. • One of the greatest poets in Tang period, which is often called China's "golden age" of poetry • Around a thousand existing poems are attributed to him • "Poem number 19," which sounds conventional but it's not at all • Served in the academy for poets established by Xuanzong, wrote light sensual poems that celebrated beauty of imperial parks • Significance: symbol of the flourishing intellectual Tang culture, works have influence in all arenas

• 712-770 A.D. • Another great poet • Poems about what life is like on the frontier • Chinese civilization isn't taken for granted anymore • "If there's anything worth fighting for, it's the ideas that your enemies are trying to subvert" • Frequently considered one of the greatest Chinese poets, greatest ambition was to serve the country as a civil servant, but proved unable to make the necessary accommodations • Poems often feature moral engagement, technical excellence, and history • Significance: works were influential in both Chinese and Japanese literary culture, nearly 1500 poems have been preserved over the ages

• 772-846 A.D. • Chinese poet of the Tang • Poems about career or observations made as a government official including governer of three provinces, also renowned in Japan • Style was simple and easy to understand, was one of the most accessible to English readers • Collection of poems survives virtually intact • Thousands of poems (not all good)... he wrote too much • Significance: Influential in spreading Chinese culture to other places, demonstrates prominence of Tang culture

• 916 - 1125 A.D. • The Khitan were a confederation of tribes located in Manchuria • These Mongols practiced agriculture, hunting, and animal husbandry • When Abaoji brought 8 to 10 of the tribes together to form the Liao, they gained control of the northern part of China • This was the first "alien group" to rule China • They did not assimilate, and they set up a dual system completely separate from the Chinese, dressing differently and speaking different languages • They were eventually overtaken by the Jurchens • Large dynasty northeast of China that was considered to be "barbarians" to other Chinese • However, they were very strong and seized 16 prefectures from the later Jin Dynasty • This was the genesis of a large cosmopolitan, multi-ethnic empire • Nomadic Mongolic people, threat to Song dynasty • Looked on Chinese as weaklings, Chinese looked on them as bullies • Gained control of the 16 Prefectures (region in the North, includes Beijing), which was the springboard from which Liao would exert its influence over north China • Prefectures governed through civil bureaucracy inherited from Tan • Created a dual state with distinct Chinese and Khitan areas, but bulk of Khitans maintained their ancient customs • Much smaller than Song but the might of their military made them feared by Song

• 960 - 976 A.D. • General, people trust his judgment • United all of China in 960 after Tang • First emperor of Song • Small in terms of land areas and insignificant • When united China, it wasn't clear to anyone that Song wasn't just gonna be the 6th dynasty • But really the dynasty lasts for 3 centuries • He needs to set groundwork for long term security • Eliminated military government, chose civilian administration in which civilians make decisions • Prevented anyone else from rising up to power • Expanded civil service examinations, created academies for discussion of thought that facilitated growth of science, art, literature, economic reforms • Significance: Put an end to two centuries of independent regional armies

• 960-1127 A.D. • Capital of Song - strategic location in the North • Ideal location and strategic capital for economic growth • Yellow River and Grand Canal • Capital of Song from which Taizu was able to establish strong central government • With a population of over 400,000, living both inside and outside the city wall • Markets not governed by official prices so huge growth in economy • Revenue from trade taxes exceeded those from land (contrary to the norm) • Significance: helped develop strong economy of Song

• ~10th century • Jiaozi - Song paper money issued and backed by the government • There is actually record of discussion about monetary policy and for the most part, the Song dynasty refrained from overprinting currency • Reduced pressure on minting (making coins) • Succeeded fei qian (flying money, certificates of deposit) • Also stimulated other forms of negotiable instruments (promissory notes, bills of exchange, etc.) • Significance: major innovation in paper and printing technology, as well as economic exchange, was popular in later dynasties like the Yuan and the Qing

• 1115-1234 A.D. • Defeated Kaifeng, end of Song and beginning of Southern Song • Jurchens originated in eastern Manchuria • One of the groups that Han Chinese saw as barbarians • They banded together under Aguda as the Jin Dynasty • They allied with the Song to overcome the Liao, adopting more modern war tactics like "siege," • Later turned on the Song and ruled northern China • Known as a "conquest dynasty" because they weren't Chinese • But millions of Chinese people live under them • Extremely powerful militarily • Incorporated Chinese experts and technology into their military • Became masters of north China and continued to adopt Chinese ideas of government, supported by Chinese officials • Treated officials poorly - punished them and humiliated them - obviously different from Confucian values • Significance: Were the "alien" regime that ruled the most Chinese people, a ton of integrations with the Chinese

• 989-1052 A.D. • Prominent politician and literary figure in northern Song dynasty • Rose to seat of chancellor of China • Trusts for the members of his clan • Believed in putting values into practice, made charitable state estate for his clan • The proceeds of estate went to less fortunate members of the clan • Began educational reforms in the 1040s • Requested reform of the government recruitment system • Wider sponsorship programs to ensure draft of intellectual officials, wanted to discourage corruption • Neo-Confucian program (idea of service limited to his clan, obligation to kinfolk outweigh obligation to others) • Significance: Tried to institute reform and promote spread of civil service exam for government recruitment

• He wrote a book called "On parties" or "On factions" (of a political party) • People with high-minded ideals • Wanted to do good in the world • A lot of paternalism involved / not democracy / its Confucian • No voting involved • We know what's best for the people, but we have principles and will tirelessly work for their benefit • Not insincere

• 1021-1086 AD • Chinese economist, chancellor, and poet, who brought about major socioeconomic reforms • Restructured system of money lending for peasants (Green Sprouts Policy) • Opposed by Sima Guang because of his Green Sprouts Policy • He was known for his body odor (sacrilegious to bathe because he received his body from his parents) - shows he's devoted to causes • Goal: enrich country, bring more of wealth into state • Restructured fiscal administration and tax system • Revised examination for entry to office, increased number of government schools • There was much hostility against his policies

• Mistake during Northern Song Period - brainchild of Wang Anshi • He was devoted to money-lending • Big problem: although it was a good economy, life for peasants was still horrible • High capital costs in spring - need to raise cash that they didn't have • How to raise cash? Borrow money from private money-lenders with high rates of interests • When harvest comes, a lot of them didn't get as much back as they borrowed • Wang Anshi believed it was NOT acceptable that peasants get exploited by the money-lenders • SO, Wang Anshi set up Green Sprouts Policy • Federal credit office... farmers, instead of borrowing money from money-lenders, could borrow money from government credit office (still high interests, but not as bad) • Government wasn't interested in profit, did this to help peasants; supposed to be great way to transform financial complexion of society • IT DIDN'T WORK

• 1019-1086 A.D. • Rival of Wang Anshi • Same intentions of protecting people - but didn't agree with the Green Sprouts Policy and wants to destroy the program • Sima Guang believed the Green Sprouts Policy failed because 1) Government is not supposed to get involved in financial transactions. It exists only to spread value 2) Peasants are dumb. Thus, it is makes sense for money lenders are to be wealthy and for peasants to be poor. Peasants don't know how to handle/manage money 3) There were quotas. Government needed to provide a certain number of loans so peasants who didn't necessarily need money were forced to take out a loan 4) Administrators were over eager to document loans that didn't exist and pocket the money • Sima Guang wrote Zizhi tongjian (Comprehensive Mirror for Aid in Government) • Served as textbook on governance and should be read by princes and emperors as a guideline how to rule and what not to do as a ruler • Ultimately it was a critique of Wang Anshi • Most-read traditional histories of China

• 1037-1101 A.D. • Known to be a renaissance man and achieved office through civil service exams, • • Poet and administrator • Neo-confucian • Disapproved of Wang Anshi's economic reforms • Wrote a poem criticizing Wang Anshi's reforms, especially the government monopoly imposed on the salt industry • He believes that Wang Anshi broke Confucian traditions: people should come up with their own POV's • Accept people's own diverse opinions (Wang anshi believed people had to think the right way)

• 1020-1077 A.D. • This neo-Confucian philosopher pioneered a new metaphysical ideology, specifically about the transforming nature/cycle of qi • Believed you shouldn't be nasty to others because you may harm their qi • All things in the world are composed of qi, which includes matter and the forces that govern interactions between matter • Qi is a vital force that is always in the process of changing, this change follows a pattern of activity according to yin and yang, so there is nothing in the world that can't be explained by the interaction of qi activity • Believed in idea of ren, or benevolence • Omnipresence of qi ("vital energy") • He also advocated the oneness of li ("principle"; comparable to the idea of Natural Law) and the multiplicity of its manifestations, which is created as the principle expresses itself through the "vital energy"

• 11th Century • Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi were among the pioneers of Song Dynasty Neo-Confucianism, and they are often credited with its formal creation along with Zhu Xi and several other scholars • They dealt extensively with cosmology in their studies, applying Neo-Confucian principles to their studies of celestial bodies • In particular, the brothers identified and applied the principle of Divine or Natural Order, called li, to that of Tian, the Heavens, as their original and guiding power • Gewu was interpreted by Cheng Brothers to mean investigation of things • Significance: Pioneered Neo-Confucian principles

• Underlying the different manifestation/forms of qi is li. gewu = investigation of things -- the technique to discern li. Not all Confucian scholars agreed on how gewu should be achieved (how do their approaches differ?). • We think a chair is a chair, a tv is a tv, etc. but if we stop at that level we haven't understood the cosmic unity of li and moral responsibility • Deep point that at most fundamental level, these li go back to one single li that apply to everything • Study li to improve yourself • Refers to underlying reason and order of nature in its organic form • Unification with the qualities and functions of qi • Humans have the obligation to find out what the fundamental li is observed in all of the li's manifested in the world, must find the li of the cosmos • Li and qi depend on each other to create structures of nature and matter • Championed by the Cheng brothers

• Interpreted by the Cheng Brothers to mean the "investigation of things". • Cheng Yi followed his brother's lead and formulated the dictum "self-cultivation requires reverence; the extension of knowledge consists in the investigation of things." • By making special reference to gewu ("investigation of things"), raises doubts about the appropriateness of focusing exclusively on the illumination of the mind in self-cultivation • Significance: concept of Neo-Confucianism

1130-1200 • Southern Song Neo-Confucian scholar who was a disciple of the Cheng Brothers • Accepted the theory of qi and li and the theory of gewu and made it even more complicated by applying metaphysics • Where does investigating take place? - In your mind! Mind is in your heart, not brain - Heart is li in qi - the truth is within you! You must study - Heaven planted li of cosmos in your mind - Your mind can come in different grades, your actions can affect the qi in your mind • Doesn't agree with investigation of things as only way of obtaining li, advocates education through reading classics; once li is understood, must pacify qi ripples with jing (reverence and discipline), but emphasizes gewu • jing = reverence, discipline - discipline our minds so we're up to the task of investigating things (Cheng brothers didn't have this 2-step process) - study classics over and over until you understand them • the truth is inside you because heaven put it there (li is in your mind) • Assembled/assigned special significance to Four Books: Mencius, Analects, Doctrine of the Mean and Great Learning • Innate perfect li, overcome qi (immorality rooted in physicality) to become a sage

1139-1192 • Was a Chinese scholar and philosopher who founded the school of the universal mind, the second most influential Neo-Confucian school. • He was a contemporary and the main rival of Zhu Xi. • In his own words, Lu said, "The universe is my mind, and my mind is the universe." • Unlike Zhu's emphasis of li, which is the principle that contains and underlies all things and beings, Lu believed that the heart/mind as the ultimate one or source that encompasses everything including the universe and the principle. • The unity of the mind expressed in the work of Lu means that the mind of humanity and the mind of the Way (Dao) are one and the same. • This is in direct opposition to Zhu Xi's idea that the mind of Humanity and the mind of the Way are separate and distinct from each other. • Zhu Xi also claimed that every individual thing possesses its own unique material force (chi) distinct from the principle (li). • Lu vehemently opposed this dualistic doctrine and further emphasized that everything is connected and originated from the heart/mind.

1162-1227 • He was a Mongol military genius, who with his sons, put together largest land empire in human history in early 13th century • Mongols - fighting power was insurmountable. They were particularly adept at riding, hunting, shooting - naturally advantageous in warfare; mounted cavalry • Estimated Mongol population of 1.5-2 million - despite small population still clobbered other civilizations. • Main reason is Mongols were open from the start to incorporating expertise from non-Mongols and fighting units (non-Mongol technology like siege weaponry) • Trebuchet • Subdued other Mongol and Turkic tribes to build up an army of loyal followers. • In 1206, he was named "great khan" • Thereafter, he formed an army, breaking apart traditional tribal affiliations • Created military nobility, harsh laws, and initiated conquest of nearby states; took over north China and the Jurchen's northern capital in Beijing. Threatened destruction and demanded submission- those that agreed were treated as allies, those who put up a fight would be totally destroyed. • Promoted religious tolerance. • "Blood tanistry" represented their lack of a system of succession — people just fight for power, most powerful man wins. • When he died, his empire was carved into four pieces

1186-1241 • Third son of Genghis Khan. Became the second Great Khan of the Mongol Empire after succeeding his father. • He continued the expansion of the empire that his father had begun, and was a world figure when the Mongol Empire reached its farthest extent west and south during the invasions of Europe and Asia • Had the northern part of China at his disposal • Didn't know how to govern a society like North China with millions to tens of millions of people and considered turning it all into pasture land. • Great at carrying out Chinggis' desire to conquer more areas, integrated other ethnic groups (Uighurs, Tibetians, Khitans, Persians, Chinese) into their armies and governments to be successful; enslaved some skilled workers; rewarded conquests if they served the Mongols • Wasn't great at governing China because gained control of too many people; had an advisor, Yelu Chucai, who appealed to everyone's grief and established tax farming (directly taxing farmers); eventually changes policy and allows merchants to bid against each other for licenses to collect taxes, ruinous because extracts immediate wealth

1189-1243 • Advisor to Ogodei, personally was of Khitan descent, family lineage was Liao royalty • Introduced administrative reforms during reign of Chinggis and Ogodei • Khitan statesman with royal family lineage to the Liao Dynasty who became a close advisor and administrator during the early Mongol Empire. • Convinced Ogodei not to slaughter the people of North China to convert it into pasture land, but instead suggested to tax them (much more profitable) • Separated civil and military powers and introduced numerous taxes and levies • Many Mongols opposed his ideas and recommended killing conquered peoples, but Yelu was influential enough to advise Chinggis and Ogodei to carry out his ideas • Significance: calmed the belligerent nature of the Mongol empire by instituting more civil ideas

1215-1294 • Qubilai (also Kublai Khan) was a grandson of Genghis Khan. • Has to conquer all of China. Up until this point, South China is still independent of Mongol rule. • Recognizes taxing farming as ruinous and immediately abolishes it. Sees the value of traditional Chinese bureaucratic practices. • Establishes the Yuan dynasty in 1271 and successfully conquers South China as well o Civil service exams abolished o Open to using non-Chinese, non-Mongol advisors - does not care where you come from as long as you have useful service to offer o Intermarriage discouraged o Mongol writing system (to preserve the prestige of Mongols) o Four classes of society 1. Mongols 2. Semu ren ("people of various kinds") 3.Han people (population of the defeated Jin empire, also includes Jurchens and Khitans) 4. Southerners (renmen population of Southern Song, overwhelmingly Chinese) • Quota system based on four classes (unequal) • Systematic depopulation under Qubilai's rule and afterwards

1340-1355 • High government official during the later years (1340-1355) of China's Yuan dynasty. • Favored a centralized approach to government. • Positions that had been closed to the Chinese were reopened, many literati returned to the capital • Civil service examination system restored • Oversaw projects to reroute the Huang He (Yellow River) and develop an apparatus for preventing many of the uprisings in 1350s • Toghto decides that pirates were a concern so shipping food to the North by sea was not a great option. • They decide to rebuild Grand Canal which creates a rebellion recipe.

1328-1398 • Rose through the ranks in the rebel forces, married daughter of previous commander, not before long became supreme commander (highly regarded by other commanders) • Yuan administration was never very solid. Mongols retreated back to the Steppe, leaving China proper to the new Ming. • With the population ravaged (50-60% of what it had been), areas of the countryside in shambles without regular cultivation or administration, deforestation → Zhu had the unique opportunity to imprint his vision with because of China's blank canvas. o Drove Mongols out and declared Ming dynasty in 1368. Didn't trust others, controlled everything as Emperor. o Known as the Hongwu Emperor o Left a dysfunctional economy and governmental system o Ming dynasty in Yunaan province - great with trade • ***Zhu Yuanzhang establishes capital at Nanjing - easy to defend and feed • Whole area is deforested, bad mess (leftover from Yuan), Zhu Yuanzhang decides he needs to imprint his vision of type of empire • He made some decisive moves • He knows he needs a navy • Massive reforestation campaign - plant SO many trees - this saved topsoil and water level in china for decades - there was a serious erosion problem that was evaded with his decision • He was also HIGHLY conscientious and deeply suspicious • He was distrustful of the literati - didn't want people who could carry on the government without him so he treated them unfairly • Personal involvement in day-to-day administration

• Secret police set up by Hongwu Emperor • Job to root out sedition • Secret police during the 14th century allowed to arrest, interrogate, and punish • Power of arrest, detention, interrogation by torture, all without going through the formally established judiciary, bureaucracy and other executive branches of the government. • If you offend the emperor • You can't really speak your mind -> execution, land confiscated • Beginning of end of civil discourse in imperial China • Reflects the deep mistrust of literati

• 3rd emperor of the Ming from 1402-1424 and considered most well-known of the Ming dynasty. Was son of Hongwu/Zhu Yuanzhang, but had to kill his nephew, who was the original heir, in order to obtain the throne • Moved the capital from Nanjing to Beijing, which was a BAD MOVE! So hard to defend because nomads and Mongols in the north could march right up to city walls whereas they couldn't with marshy Nanjing. He had grand canal of China repaired (in order to supply Beijing with grain) • Built the Forbidden City in Beijing • Knew how to play different groups of the Steppe against one another. • Repaired and reopened the Grand Canal of China in order to supply the new capital of Beijing in the north with a steady flow of goods. • Commissioned Zheng He's voyages (7 of them) • Compilation of Yongle Emcyclopedia • Allowed eunuchs to participate in government • Upheld the civil examinations that Zhu Yuanzhang had been reluctant about • Yongle funds great maritime expedition in 15th century - SE asia, Arabia, Sri Lanka • Ming government not really interested in international trade - stressed agrarian society where many factors are easy to control

1371-1433 o Zheng He went on expeditions from 1405-1433. He was sent by Emperor Yongle to find tributary states. o He was a muslim of Persian descent (in 1405, became a Buddhist) eunuch, one of Yongle's most trusted servants. He also spoke Arabic, which was convenient. o A large flotilla carried 27,000 men on 62 large and over 200 small ships, a sizable voyage crew. o The first three voyages went as far as India, the fourth to the Persian gulf, and the last three as far as Africa's eastern coast. o The missions were later abandoned as not being cost effective. o Zheng He's mission was to expand China's tributary system, and while some of these countries peacefully acquiesced, others resisted and Zheng He was not afraid to use force o Menzies, in his film, 1421: the year China discovered the World, argues that Zheng he and crew had the resources to have reached as far as America, perhaps beating out Columbus, though this is highly unlikely. o Significance: Stimulated economy through maritime trade which started in Tang, exposure to Western ideas and goods and Christianity

14th century • Concept of the Great Wall revived during the Ming Dynasty in the 14th century (concept originated during the Qin). • Following the Ming army's defeat by the Oirats in the Battle of Tumu in 1449, the Ming had failed to gain an upper hand over the Manchurian and Mongolian tribes. • New strategy to keep nomadic tribes out → construct walls along the northern border of China • Much more elaborate designs, considerable resources devoted to the construction especially near the Beijing capital. • Yongle's son keeps supporting Esen Khan and they keep getting stronger and stronger and captures Yongle's son -> but China just replaces him • China decides they need to build the Great Wall • Ming rebuilt the wall to protect against Mongol rule. Terminates in east in fortress of Shang HaiGuan - nexus of wall and fortifications, protected by European canons • It didn't really keep invaders out, not cost-effective, but they didn't see any other way of defending • After Great Wall, Ming dynasty starts to fall • Altan Khan emerges - demonstrates how useless the Great Wall was in trying to defend the frontier. He rode around it and wound up within 60 miles of Beijing. All he wanted was the right to trade

• "Japanese bandit" i.e. pirate • Raided the coastlines of China and Korea starting in the 13th century. • So these pirates/merchants - seeking profit because of their Huge demand for foreign goods • Ming China implanted a policy to forbid civil trade with Japan while maintaining governmental trade (Haijin) • Instead it forced Chinese merchants to trade with Japan illegally to protect their own interests • Significance: one of many threats to Ming power

1581 • It was a series of reforms that, at its most basic level, made everyone pay their land taxes once a year in silver • Made possible by the silver coming in from the Spanish armada of the time (South America). • Put China on a silver standard at a time when the worldwide cost of silver was dropping. • Even the poorest farmers, who were earlier required to pay their land taxes in grain, had to pay in silver. • Problem was that peasants didn't have enough money to carry around silver. • From the ordinary peasant's point of view, it was bad because worldwide silver prices were dropping and the exchange rate from copper to silver was getting increasingly worse.

"1472-1529 • Wang Yangming (also known by Wang Shouren, his non-honorific name) was a Ming Chinese idealist Neo-Confucian philosopher, official, educationist, calligraphist and general who lived from 1472-1529. • Significance: After Zhu Xi, he is commonly regarded as the most important Neo-Confucian thinker. Denied the dualism of Zhu Xi. Wang Yangming developed the idea of innate knowing or Liangzhi, arguing that every person knows from birth the difference between good and evil. Such knowledge is intuitive and not rational. Furthermore, he argued that knowledge was action and believed that it is not the world that shapes the mind, but the mind that gives reason to the world. • Was a good leader because he was not only a scholar or a philosopher, but was also a military leader"

"• Developed by Wang Yangming, "innate knowing" - every person knows from birth the difference between good and evil → such knowledge is intuitive not rational. • Led to his philosophy of action (knowledge and action unified as one). After having learned something, one must practice it at the right time. For example, apply what you learn for the betterment of the people around you. Sweet flower example - unless you smell the flower yourself, you don't know what it means. • Man of his followers because famous for rejecting conventional norms - deliberately did provocative things to make the case that we don't have that much to learn from traditional teachings → if we want to attain knowledge, we need to attain it ourselves through exploration. "

"1613-1682 o A critic of Neo-Confucianism, this thinker supported the use of kaozheng (evidentiary learning) to get back to the basis of Confucian learning - 1613-1682 • Reaction to excesses of Wang Yangming's ideas • "Evidentiary learning" → Emphasis on the classics as the ultimate source of knowledge. • Fought against the establishment of Manchu Qing dynasty, spent rest of his life studying the reasons for the Ming collapse. • Viewed the decline as the result of excessive orthodoxy of Chinese thought, which confined Confucian thinking to set formulas. As a solution, he called for the abandonment of neo-Confucian commentaries and return to the original classics. • One of the pioneers of kaozheng o he doesn't like that the Classics/odes don't rhyme o he realizes the language has changed o ushers in new movement of trying to reconstruct what ancient Chinese sounded like o if you want to read classics and understand what they meant, read them as they were back then -- Kaozheng o He suggested comparing texts in great detail, correcting mistakes of previous commentators"

"Kaozheng • Influenced by their knowledge of European mathematics and mathematical astronomy, these scholars laid down new rules for verifying the authenticity of the Classical texts • Revealed flaws in previously accepted canons, challenged the Neo-Confucian orthodoxy • Turning away from the Confucian quest for sagehood, the empirical scholars were increasingly secular and professional in their pursuit of textual studies. • Evidential learning - It's not a school (like Confucianism) or an academy. Rather, it's a movement (intellectual movement). • Goal is to restore Confucianism to an earlier, truer, authentic form by comparing odes to ancient Chinese texts very closely • Reverted back to traditional Confucianism"

"1612-1678 • Powerful military general in charge of great fortress at eastern end of Great Wall, instrumental in fall of Ming and establishment of Qing • Facilitated Qing conquest of China - trying to conquer all of China because china very big and people with divided loyalties • People on the fence about whether to support the Manchus • He opened the gate to let the Qing armies in because he realized the inevitable decline of the Ming dynasty. • He is directly related to the fall of the Ming dynasty in 1644 • As Li Zicheng's army closing in on Beijing, abandoned by his officials, the last emperor of the Ming committed suicided by hanging himself in the hill behind the Forbidden City (so sad...). He shouldn't have stayed in Beijing • Ming dynasty officially ended in 1644 -> Qing which started in the north with Nurhaci, a multi-ethnic empire using banner system • He's seen as a traitor • He also rebels against Qing trying to begin his own empire, but fails as Kangxi crushes him"

1662-1722 o The Qing Empire still had not been secured so the Kangxi Emperor was still fighting for Qing's (and his own) legitimization. o He was a patron of Chinese art, literature, and philosophy - eventually commissioning the Kangxi dictionary, which appealed to the literati. o One of the greatest emperors in Chinese history. When he came to power, the empire was not secured, China was not pacified, and there were still pockets of anti-Manchu violence. o Kangxi is also famous for winning the legitimation award as many Chinese were skeptical of non-Chinese rulers. o He went to great lengths to ensure Qing could rule with respect and humanity. o He was very shrewd about patronizing literati and giving them important jobs (i.e. Kangxi Dictionary). o By 1722, the was very stable and was the largest since Tang times. It included China proper and Mongolia. o Considered to be one of the GREATEST emperors in Chinese history. • Kangxi had tremendous geo-political insight. China has reached it's geopolitical influence ever. Even Europeans are impressed by Chinese culture • Kangxi's goal is legitimizing his rule. Kangxi dictionary offers rationalizations for different portions of the map. Managed to bring literati under the roof, the literati are writing the history. Treat them well and the literati will write well about you and you go down in history well. • Keep the literati happy, keep taxes low on peasants, avoid foreign conflicts, you decrease the risk of rebellion and over 6 decades of that kind of leadership, you can establish a very strong state

Treaty of Nerchinsk • Treaty between China and Russia • First treaty between China and a European power • Kangxi sees that he shares one of the longest land borders on Earth with Russia • No Mongolia at the time. The land has been consumed by the Russian Empire in the north and the Qing empire in the south • These two empires have to come to some kind of agreement because the border is so long that it's practically indefensible • Both sides wanted to secure the border at relatively low cost • From this point on, the Mongols are never a serious threat again • Growth of maritime trade made the Mongols obsolete. The Mongols had a huge overland trade advantage and occupied them. This is were they derived their power • Shipping became easier, quicker, cheaper, safer. Gobi Desert highways became obsolete, and the overland trade became less and less important • The Mongols were also sandwiched between two Empires. In the 13th, 14th century, Russia isn't even in the picture. But now, you have a new vigorous Russian Empire and a vigorous Qing empire, and this crushes the Mongols. o It took this great emperor with political acumen to accomplish this

First Opium War (1840-1842) • Not a very big war the first time around • The British are fighting for the right to sell opium • Minority in British parliament didn't like this rationale but they did it anyway • Britian sent over a few hundred gunboats and the Chinese got utterly destroyed • Resulted in the Treaty of Nanjing The Arrow War / Second Opium War • Britain provokes a war with China knowing that a new treaty can be signed, new treaty can be signed • Improper boarding of a British vessel. Dispute over whether or not the Chinese can board a British vessel

Treaty of Nanjing • Happened after the First Opium War • Treaty regime was very profitable for the West • Kept forcing China to capitulate and give deeper and deeper concessions • China had to pay an indemnity for the cost of the war • Not that big in the first Opium War, but ended up getting expanded and becoming huge after a few wars • Cession of Hong Kong. Greatest port in the world. Hardly have picked a better place for a maritime empire than Hong Kong • Nobody could have foreseen Hong Kong's growth at the time. It was just a small fishing village. Not seen at the time as big concession • Treaty Ports were exempted from the Canton System by treaty. Trade is free. • Shanghai was divided into different jurisdictions. Almost like living in an international city • Fixed tariffs • Industrial revolution had just begun in Europe. Not at the high point yet. • Extraterritoriality (exempt from local law) • Most favored nation clause: any time China signs treaties with a new power, they're automatically extended to Britain too. France got one of these treaties as well

• With the treaty grant foreign missionaries to preach in China... • The Heavenly Kingdom of Taiping (Great Peace) was rebellion/movement against Qing from 1851 to 1864, during the Qing dynasty. Hong Xiuquan believed that he was related to Jesus and replaced Confucianism, Buddhism, and Chinese folk religion by a form of Christianity. By 1851, he had enough followers that he raised a revolt and declared himself king of the Heavenly Kingdom of Great peace (Taiping). They seized and set up government in Nanjing trying to reform monogamous marriage, marriage, and civil service exams for women. Western governments considered supporting the movement, but decided that treaties with Qing government are so beneficial. The movement wasn't put down by Qing government (not so strong afterall) but by members of gentry • Rebellion lasted a long time, shows Qing is WEAK • Generals who put down the taiping rebellion didn't turn against Qing!

o Movement launched by leaders in Qing in the 19th century because after the Opium Wars and Taiping Rebellion, emperor realized China needs to enter modern world to compete with European powers. They wanted to strengthen China against the West, who they thought of as "barbarians." Many reforms were put in place to adopt Western technologies, improve math, international relations, revamp education, revamp civil service exams. Emperor realized China needs new diplomatic presence (not just a place where people smoke opium) and it needs western allies

1870 • French citizens were killed, French couldn't declare war because they were in Franco-Prussian war at this time • Qing Dynasty, 19th century • Started with a rumor that French nuns in Tianjing were doing horrible things to orphans they found. • Angry Chinese mobs killed the nuns, burned churches and foreign establishments. • The French came in and tried to settle the riot themselves with violence • After this incident, China and France lost a lot of trust for each other • China thought it was unfair that French could get involved with Chinese affairs and not suffer repercussions. French thought Chinese were abusing their people.

1890s • In contrast to the Opium Wars, where the Chinese were fairly nonchalant about, the defeat in the Sino-Japanese War was very important. Japan was busy reforming its society, politics, etc. now it's trying to carve out empire and korea is very obvious place to start exerting influence. • Qing empire regarded Korea as its traditional region of influence causing war. • It was pretty clear that Japanese would win this war—they fought for one single purpose while there were so many little armies in Qing empire with generals who regarded armies as their resources and didn't want to exert them too much. • For example, they fired canons filled with sawdust rather than gunpowder. • Treaty of Shimonoseki (1895) • Extremely burdensome indemnity • China must institute special taxes to pay installments and indemnities, China is starting to appear like a debtor nation • End of China as Europeans know it, powers took parts of Chinese (except Italian) • China required to give full independence to Korea

1835-1908 • Ruler of the Qing Dynasty • Conservative minded - squashed reform by Liang Qichao and Kang Youwei (seen as a last chance for China to get back on its feet), mainly because she wanted to maintain her power • Failed to adopt western forms of government • An example of an inward looking ruler of the Qing Dynasty. Didn't work with the Europeans to secure a better position for China. Obsessed with keeping her own power, which killed chances of reform in China • Because she is concerned more about her own position and Manchus, a lot of bad stuff happens .. ex) Boxer Rebellion

1898-1901 • Boxers are literally boxers who believe that their skills can deflect bullets and overcome foreign weapons, they start to rebel against foreign abuses of Chinese people • The Boxer Rebellion was against the foreign powers, destroying property of foreign missionaries and Christian converts. Empress Cixi ultimately decided to support the Boxers because she thought that they might help solve the foreign problem for her. BIG MISTAKE. However, the rebels' actions left China in even worse of a situation. • Boxers upset because the railroads cut across the land with no respect to the spirits that live there, and that telegraph wires dripped red (thinking it was the blood of spirits). They didn't understand what industrialization was • The Qing court sided with the Boxers, who were harassing foreigners in China. • Once Europeans found out this was going on, they violently stopped the rebellion, forming another treaty that further set China back • Showed how poorly the Qing government was functioning. Wasn't even able to inform its citizens the nature of industrialization. Also sided with the rebels rather than the Europeans - another example of how the government wasn't recognizing the power of Westerners.

1866-1925 • With the Qing dynasty on its last legs, he (1866-1925) inspired the overthrow of the Qing dynasty, because he was frustrated with the Qing government and its refusal to adopt Western knowledge and technology. • He was greatly influenced by American ideas as he received Western education, adopted Western dress, cut off quieu. • He established Tongmeng hui (United League or Revolutionary Alliance), an International alliance to raise funds for early republic of China. People who were willing to contribute to establish a republic. • He devised ways for China to skip ahead of the west by going directly to a more progressive form of gov't, spent most of his time traveling in search of funds and foreign supporters • Collapse of imperial system with the Wuchang Uprising sparked the beginning of republic. • Garrison in Wuchang was nervous about republic, rebelled. • One province after the other declares they won't accept Qing regime anymore especially when the Qing fails to nationalize railroads. • Was the first provisional president when the Republic was founded in 1912

• In English, "The Complete Writings of the Four Storehouses" (1772-1782) • Qianlong was a patron of Chinese art and literature but was worried about anti-Manchu sentiments. • Thus, he commissioned a master book of all the great works of Chinese literature, intentionally leaving out works that seemed to threaten him. • Goal was to take all great works of writing across history of China and create a giant compilation of them. • The true goal, however, was to identify books that were "not suitable" for compilation and find out who wrote controversial books.

o Portuguese pronunciation of "officially established syndicate" o If you want trade, you must deal with cohong - this was a Chinese import-export monopoly - If a foreigner comes into China, they have to go through the cohong to trade, which was controlled by government o Restricted to certain area o After Qianlong, Guangzhou was the only port open to foreigners, but Qianlong only opened this port because he wanted to restrict foreign influence o Caused frustration of the British, who demanded tea and shippng China opium in return for it (since China was only allowed to receive silver and British were not financially capable of providing this)