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operant conditioning

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a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher

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respondent behavior

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behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus; Skinner's term for behavior learned through classical conditioning.

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operant behavior

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behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

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law of effect

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Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

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operant chamber

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(Skinner box) a chamber containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer, with attached devices to record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking. Used in operant conditioning research

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shaping

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an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

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reinforcer

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in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

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positive reinforcement

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increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response

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negative reinforcement

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increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note, this is not the same thing as punishment.)

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primary reinforcer

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an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need.

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conditioned reinforcer

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a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as secondary reinforcer.

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continuous reinforcement

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reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs; extinction occurs rapidly

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partial reinforcement

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reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.

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punishment

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an event that decreases the behavior that it follows (vs. reinforcement); reinforcement increases a behavior, punishment decreases it

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cognitive map

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a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it

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latent learning

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learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

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intrinsic motivation

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a desire to perform a behavior for its own sake

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extrinsic motivation

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a desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishment

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observational learning

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learning by observing others

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modeling

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the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

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mirror neurons

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frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy

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prosocial behavior

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positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.

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unconditioned stimulus

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in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response.

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conditioned stimulus

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in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response.

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conditioned response

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in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).

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unconditioned response

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in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth.

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learning

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a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience.

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associative learning

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learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).

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classical conditioning

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a type of learning in which an organism comes to associate stimuli it DN control (vs. operant). A neutral stimulus that signals an unconditioned stimulus (US) begins to produce a response that anticipates and prepares for the unconditioned stimulus. Also called Pavlovian or respondent conditioning.

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behaviorism

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the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

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acquisition

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the initial stage in classical conditioning; the phase associating a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.

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extinction

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the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced.

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spontaneous recovery

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the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.

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generalization

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the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.

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discrimination

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in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.

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adaptability

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human capacity to learn new behaviors that enable us to cope with changing circumstances

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learning

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a relatively pemanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience, we learn by association

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reintroducing captive animals

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requires nature (needed genetics) and nurture (history of appropriate learning)

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habituation

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response diminishes due to repetitive stimulus

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conditioning learning

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process of learning associations

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classical conditioning

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learn to associate two stimuli and to thus anticipate events

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operant conditioning

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associate a response (our behavior) and consequence and thus to repeat good acts & avoid bad acts

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observational learning

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learn from others' experience and by examples, learn things we never experience or observe

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Ivan Pavlov

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classical conditioning: salivation study (originally digestion study)

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John B. Watson

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searched for laws underlying learning, behaviorism, built off Pavlov

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behaviorism

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urged psychologists to discard reference to inner thoughts, feelings, motives and to study how organisms respond to environmental stimuli (goal: objective prediction & control of observable behavior)

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mentalistic concepts

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consciousness, belief that basic learning same for all species; disdained by Watson & Pavlov (ignored importance of cognitive processes such as thoughts, perceptions, expectations and biological constraints); modern scientists believe in these mental processes

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5 major conditioning processes

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acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recoverty, generalization, discrimination

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Michael Domjan

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showed hos CS signals an important biological event by conditional sexual arousal of birds (capacity for classical conditioning aids reproduction)

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Michael Olson and Russell Fazio

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Pokemon & word associations

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early behaviorists

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believed learned behaviors could be reduced to mindless mechanisms, presumed cognition unnecessary

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Robert Rescorla, Allan Wagner

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animals learn predictability and expectancy ex: cognition (knowing) reduces effectiness of CS-US associations

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Extending Pavlov's Understanding

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cognitive processes, biological predispositions

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Pavlov, Watson, Kimble (at first)

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believed basic laws of learning same for all animals, disregards biological predispositions

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John Garcia

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challenged prevailing idea that associations can be learned equally well by all animals

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Taste Aversion, Rat Radiation (Garcia, Koelling)

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1) even with a UR several hours after novel taste, rats learned to avoid that flavor (vs. immediately following rule, because of adaptability) 2) rats developed aversions to tastes but not sight/sound (despite ability to perceive) b/c rats depend on taste, birds on sight stronger conditioning if CS is ecologically relevant

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biological constraints

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learning enables animals to adapt to their environment

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Pavlov's Legacy

answer

classical conditioning is a basic form of learning, how to study learning objectively

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Little Albert (Watson & Rosalie Rayner)

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conditioned fear in child, generalization to all animals

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BF Skinner

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law of effect (rewarded behavior is likely to recur), developed behavioral technology/principles of behavior control; critizes for discounting importance of cognitive processes and predispositions

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successive approximations

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rewarding as animal gets closer and closer to desired behavior and ignore all other behaviors

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discriminative stimulus

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will learn to discriminate stimulus after seeing other categories (ex: recognize human faces, green traffic lights) reinforces a response and reinforces categorization

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reinforcement

answer

(operant conditioning) event that strengthns the behavior preceding it

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primary reinforcers

answer

innately reinforcing stimulus (such as one that satisfies a biological need)

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conditioned reinforcer (secondary reinforcer)

answer

stimulus that gains its reinforcing power thru association w/ primary reinforcer; enhances ability to influence one another

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fixed-ratio schedules

answer

(operant conditioning) reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses; high rate of responding (frequent flyers)

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variable-ratio schedule

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(operant) reinforces after an unpredictable number of responses; high rates of responding b/c reinforcers increase as responses increase (gambling, salespersons)

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fixed-interval schedules

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(operant) reinforces only after specified time; choppy start-stop pattern of responses (cookie checkers)

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variable-interval schedules

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(operant) reinfores a response at unpredictable time intervals; produces slow, steady responding

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Larzelere

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problems with human punishment

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issues w/ punishment

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1) behavior is suppressed not forgetten, may reappear in safe settings (child learns discrimination: no response in certain areas) 2) increase aggressiveness 3) create fear (avoid school) 4) does not guide to more positive behavior

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punishments

answer

postive punishment: administer adverse stimulus negative: withdraw desirable stimulus

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cognitive processes

answer

latent learning, animals develop cognitive map; more to learning than association a response w/ a consequence, there is also cognition

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latent learning

answer

learning apparent only when there is incentive to demonstrate it

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intrinsic motivation

answer

desire to perform a behavior for its own sake

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extrinsic motivation

answer

desire to perform due to promised rewards or threats of punishment

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excessive rewards

answer

undermine intrinsic motivation

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biological predispositions

answer

biological constraints predispose organisms to learn associations that are naturally adaptive (ex: hamsters easily learn to dig for food but DN learn to wash their face for food)

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instinctive drift

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back to biologically predisposed patterns

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Skinner's Legacy

answer

controversially insisted external influences (not internal feelings) shape behavior and urged operant conditioning; called dehumanizing

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Applications of Operant Conditioning

answer

1) students must be given feedback imediately 2) behavioral sports training: through shaping 3) reward well-defined and achievable tasks, immediate 4) ppl who pay own electric costs, use less energy

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classical vs. operant conditioning

answer

both froms of associative learning, involve 5 stages through classical (Pavlovian) an organism associates diff stimuli it DN control and responds automatically through operant, organism associates its operate behaviors (its actions on the environment) with conswequences

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meme

answer

cultural elements transmitted by observational learning

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Albert Bandura

answer

observational learning, Bobo doll; antisocial models have antisocial effects (abusive parents have abusive children)

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prosocial

answer

positive, constructive, helpful behavior (present in lives of civil rights activists)

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violence

answer

correlational studies link violence w/ viewing violent behavior (observational learning, imitation, desensitization)

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