question

two classes of monoamines

answer

1) catecholamines 2) indolamines

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catecholamines

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consist of dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine

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indolamines

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consist of serotonin

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neuropsychopharmacology

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goal is to identify specific drugs that interact with the nervous system and alter behavior that has been disrupted by disease, injury, or environment factors

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psychoactive drug

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-a chemical substance that changes brain function and results in alterations in perception, mood, consciousness or behavior -any substance that has a psychological of physiological effect when introduced to the body -affects neural transmission by enhancing (agonist) or blocking (antagonist) the actions of natural neurotransmitters in the synapse -affects the way our brain send, receives, and reacts to neural signals -may effect many different neurotransmitters in different ways -utilize the neurobiological pathways typically involved in motivating animals to engage in behaviors necessary for species preservation

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mesolimbic pathway

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reward pathway (that is effected by addictive drugs)

question

antagonist

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-block (which keeps normal neurotransmitters or agonists from interacting with the receptor site) or decrease the effects of specific neurotransmitters -blocks the receptor from being activated by other ligands -Specific functions: -block receptor sites -increase the speed of neurotransmitter removal from the synapse -decrease production of neurotransmitters -Ex. Beta-blockers

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what beta-blockers are and what they do

answer

-antagonist drug -decrease the effects of epinephrine, which is typically experienced during the stress response -this allows the cardiovascular responses during a stressful event to calm down

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agonist drug

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-mimic (initiates normal effects of the receptor) or enhance the effects of specific neurotransmitters -initiates the normal effects of the receptor -Specific functions: -mimic neurotransmitters at the receptor site -stop the removal of neurotransmitters from the synapse -increase the production of neurotransmitters -Ex. Alcohol

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how alcohol is an agonist drug

answer

-by activating the GABA neurotransmitter system (which is an inhibitory neurotransmitter), it then inhibits the activation of the nervous system

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ligand

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substance that binds to a receptor (including neurotransmitters) and has one of three effects: -agonist -antagonist -inverse antagonist

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inverse agonist

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initiates an effect that is opposite of the normal function

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goal for developing new drugs

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develop a drug that has an affinity for the targeted neurotransmitter's natural receptors in the brain and also that has a high efficacy (ability to produce desired effects for a targeted condition)

question

blind study

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-patients do not know which group they have been assigned to -used to test the efficacy of a drug -efficacy of the actual drug is compared to that of the placebo drug -ex. one group of patients receives the actual medication under the study, but the other group receives chemically inactive placebo as a control (both groups receive pills though, so they are unaware that they are getting different pills)

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double-blind study

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-neither the patients nor the researchers know the group assignments -prevents research outcomes being "influenced" by the placebo effect (if patient knew that they were given a placebo pill) or observe bias

question

placebo effect

answer

a beneficial effect, produced by a placebo drug or treatment, that cannot be attributed to the properties of the placebo itself, and must therefore be due to the patient's belief in that treatment.

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pharmacokinetics

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-the process by which a drug is absorbed, distributed, metabolized, and eliminated by the body -focuses on what the body does to the drug

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pharmacodynamics

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-focuses on what the drug does to the body - the effects of the drug and the mechanisms of how the drug works -the functional relationship between drugs and their targets

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Things to consider for a drug to be a safe and effective treatment option

answer

1) Route of administration (dose-response curves) -also, what is the lowest amount of drug necessary to produce optimal responses in the patient? 2) Absorption and Distribution -which areas of the brain and body does the drug effect? 3) Binding -where else does the drug bind to/is it stored as a temporary inactive substance? 4) Inactivation -What metabolic processes make the drug inactive? 5) Excretion -How are the final metabolites (substances produced by metabolism) of the drug eliminated from the body?

question

dose-response curve

answer

-these are established to determine the lowest amount of drug necessary to produce optimal responses -***graph of the relationship between drug doses + the effects -very helpful tool for understanding pharmacodynamics (the functional relationship between drugs and their target) -most drugs have different dose-response curves for different outcome measures -X-axis - size of dose of the drug (potency) -Y-axis - drug efficacy (response)

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ED50 value

answer

-used to determine the potency and toxicity of a drug -relative potencies between two drugs can also be compared -***a drug that has comparable effects at lower doses is more potent -this value is the effective dose for 50% of people receiving the drug -this value is used to determine the therapeutic index of a drug

question

therapeutic index

answer

-ratio of the dose of a drug that produces toxicity to the dose needed to produce the desired effect -separation between the effective dose of a drug and the toxic dose shown on a dose-response curve -determined by a drug's ED50 value

question

potency

answer

-a measure of drug activity expressed in terms of the amount required to produce an effect of given intensity. -a drug's ability to induce a given effect relative to other drugs (related to affinity and efficacy)

question

efficacy

answer

ability of a drug to produce desired effects

question

how drugs can effect the manufacturing, transport, and reception of neurotrasnmitters

answer

1) Synthesis of neurotransmitters (drug increases/decreases synthesis of neurotransmitters) 2) Action potential (increases/decreases the rate of firing or alters threshold for action potential) 3) Degradation of neurotransmitter in vesicles (increase/decrease) 4) Release (increases/decreases release of neurotransmitter) 5) Autoreceptors (increases/decreases binding of neurotransmitter to autoreceptors on presynaptic neuron - increase of binding lowers amount of neurotransmitter in the synapse) 6) Reuptake or degradation (increases/decreases reuptake or degradation of neurotransmitters) 7) Receptors on postsynaptic neuron (activates/blocks receptors or changes the 3 of proteins) 8) Retrograde transmission 9) Metabotropic receptors (affect response of G protein or second messengers)

question

autoreceptor

answer

-a type of receptor located in the membranes of presynaptic nerve cells -affected by drugs in that there is an increased/decreased binding of neurotransmitters to this type of receptor -Serves as part of a negative feedback loop in signal transduction -increase of binding LOWERS the amount of neurotransmitter in the synapse -it is only sensitive to the neurotransmitters or hormones released by the neuron on which this type of receptor sits.

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retrograde transmission

answer

-when a retrograde messenger is released by a postsynaptic dendrite or cell body, and travels "backwards" across a chemical synapse to bind to the axon terminal of a presynaptic neuron -the same effects of drugs apply to this mechanism too

question

metabotropic receptor

answer

-a type of membrane receptor of eukaryotic cells that acts through a second messenger -these receptors don't actually have "channels" -when a ligand binds to this receptor, it activates a G-Protein -the G-protein then goes to activate another molecule, which is the second messenger -THEN second messengers travel elsewhere to open other ion channels -second messengers travel all throughout the cell and result in a much wider range of responses -it may be located at the surface of the cell or in vesicles

question

metabolic tolerance

answer

organ systems become more effective at eliminating the drug

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functional tolerance

answer

target tissue may show altered sensitivity to the drug

question

four major drug types

answer

1) Stimulants 2) Depressants 3) Narcotics 4) Psychedelics

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CNS stimulants

answer

drugs that facilitate arousal and general activation

question

examples of CNS stimulants

answer

-amphetamine -cocaine -caffeine -nicotine -ecstasy

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CNS depressants

answer

drugs that suppress arousal and increase relaxation

question

examples of CNS depressants

answer

-alcohol -barbiturates -benzodiazapines

question

narcotics/analgesics

answer

-facilitate pain relief and an altered psychological experience (euphoria, feelings of pleasure, etc.) -also induces sleep

question

examples of narcotics/analgesics

answer

-opiates (ex. hydrocodone, fentanyl) -morphine -codeine -heroin

question

hallucinogens

answer

causes an altered perceptual experience

question

psychedelics

answer

-have wide-reaching effects on thoughts, emotions, and perceptions -subset of hallucinogens -"mind-altering"/"mind-manifesting"

question

example of hallucinogens

answer

-mescaline -LSD -psilocybin

question

psychotherapeutics

answer

drugs that target mental illnesses (ex. depression, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, etc.)

question

the earth's most widely used psychoactive drug

answer

caffeine

question

caffeine

answer

-drug where a low dose produces increased energy, efficiency, creativity, self-confidence, alertness, and ability to focus on one's work

question

caffeine's affect on the brain

answer

-caffeine (agonist) blocks adenosine receptors -adenosine is an inhibitory neurotransmitter (antagonist) - it inhibits the release of excitatory neurotransmitters) -activation of adenosine receptors makes you sleepy -BUT, when the adenosine receptors are blocked so adenosine can't bind, there is in overall increase in EXCITATORY neurotransmitters

question

most addictive drug

answer

nicotine

question

nicotine

answer

-causes heightened tension and arousal in non-smokers -causes relaxation and calmness in regular smokers -the active ingredient in tobacco

question

nicotine's effect on the brain

answer

-activates the nicotinic cholinergic receptors (which is normally activated by acetylcholine) -these receptors are chemical destinations for nicotine molecules and are located in many areas of the brain -once these receptors are activated, sodium channels open to allow the influx of Na+ and depolarization of the neuronal membrane -most nicotine receptors are presynaptic -b/c of this, nicotine alters the release of acetylcholine and alters other neurotransmitter systems where nicotine receptors are located on the presynaptic terminal -nicotine inhaled from three cigarettes will occupy a majority of the brain's nicotinic cholinergic receptors

question

nicotine's effect on the PNS (autonomic nervous system)

answer

-nicotine receptors are also found in the PNS -once the receptors are activated, the adrenal gland releases epinephrine and norepinephrine -also leads to increased heart rate and elevated blood pressure -also has a stimulating effect on the metabolic rate of humans

question

part of the body that releases epinephrine

answer

adrenal glands (which are on top of the kidneys)

question

part of the brain that releases norepinephrine

answer

locus coeruleus

question

locus coeruleus

answer

-a brainstem area involved in arousal, and in sympathetic nerves -involved in increased vigilance, focused attention, and enhanced energy

question

why nicotine is so addicting

answer

-nicotine delivery is reinforcing -high-affinity nicotinic receptors leads to increased firing of dopamine neurons and the release of dopamine from the nucleus accumbens

question

nucleus accumbens

answer

brain area known for its role in reward and motivational responses

question

dopamine

answer

neurotransmitter involved in reward, pleasure, and movement

question

parts of the brain that release dopamine

answer

-***substantia nigra -***ventral tegmental area -nucleus accumbens and prefrontal cortex

question

ventral tegmental area

answer

part of the brain involved in movement, reward systems, and increased vigilance

question

serotonin

answer

neurotransmitter involved in: -mood regulation -sleep/wake cycles -temperature regulations -sexual activity -aggression -synthesized from the dietary amino acid called tryptophan

question

part of the brain that releases serotonin

answer

raphe nuclei

question

cocaine

answer

-a stimulant that fights against the feelings of hunger and fatigue -causes intense euphoria, a sense of increased energy, heightened mental alertness, and feelings of competence and power.

question

crack

answer

a mixture of cocaine hydrochloride with baking soda

question

cocaine's effect on the brain

answer

-blocks the re-uptake of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin -specifically, blocks re-uptake transporters by binding to them -b/c of this, the neurotransmitters stay in the synapse for longer (ex. makes dopamine more available to act in the synapse - longer feelings of pleasure) -dopamine will just continue binding to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron on the receiving neuron as long as it remains in the synapse -SHORT-TERM - effects dopamine in the reward system (effects of intense euphoria is short-lived because the dopamine quickly "floats"/diffuses away from the synapse) -LONG-TERM - overstimulation of receiving neuron→ causes receiving neuron to "adjust" itself to a moderate response -less dopamine receptors - less response to cocaine/dopamine -one can't be as happy from reward as they used to

question

re-uptake transporter

answer

proteins that act as transporters for neurotransmitter re-uptake back into the presynaptic membrane

question

amphetamine

answer

-drug that boost alertness and produce a sense of well-being (ex. adderall) -also, confidence and diminished fatigue - similar to cocaine -"uppers" -can be used for treatment of ADHD and narcolepsy (disorder that causes overwhelming drowsiness)

question

MDMA (ecstasy)

answer

-boost alertness -diminished fatigue -enhanced sensory perception -a desire for social interaction (can relieve social anxiety) -a type of amphetamine

question

amphetamine's effect on the brain

answer

-catecholamine agonist (blocks catecholamine re-uptake) -also enhances the release of catecholamine (specifically dopamine) from presynaptic neurons -aka increased release of dopamine

question

MDMA's (ecstasy's) effect on the brain

answer

-affects more than one neurotransmitter system -monoamine agonist -leads tot he release of serotonin and dopamine -can result in depression, anxiety, sleep-disruptions, cognitive deficits, involuntary teeth clenching, etc.

question

most abused drug

answer

-alcohol -since it is legal in most countries, people do not see it as a drug

question

alcohol

answer

-LOW DOSES - -improves mood -causes drowsiness -increased self-confidence -impaired judgement and muscle coordination -HIGHER DOSES - -further cognitive and reflexive impairment -acute alcohol poisoning -The CNS slows down and leads to extreme confusion and disorientation (and slow/irregular breathing patterns)

question

alcohol's effect on the brain

answer

-increases GABA activity by binding to allosteric receptors (GABA is an inhibitory neurotransmitter) -by enhancing the effects of GABA, it is enhances it's inhibitory effects -***this is what causes the sedative-like effects of alcohol (drowsiness and a sense of relaxation) -decrease Glutamate activity by binding to it's receptors (Glutamate is an excitatory neurotransmitter) -receptors are blocked so glutamate can't bind -by decreasing the activity of Glutamate, it decreases it's excitatory effects -also effects the dopaminergic system (during alcohol withdrawal, there is a decrease in the release of dopamine) -this can lead to anhedonia

question

GABA

answer

-main inhibitory neurotransmitter -"quiets" communication between neurons -inhibition of this neurotransmitter can lead to seizures and death

question

glutamate

answer

-main excitatory neurotransmitter --> makes the next neuron more likely to transmit a signal -workhouse transmitter for excitatory signaling pathways in the brain -involved in brain plasticity mechanisms (ex. synaptogenesis - creation of synapses) when neural networks are being formed -strengthens existing synapses (which facilitates both learning and memory) -activate NMDA receptors and AMPA receptors

question

function of neurotransmitters other than glutamate and GABA

answer

modulate/control glutamate and GABA

question

anhedonia

answer

-the inability to feel pleasure -result of decreased activity in the brain's reward center (esp. during withdrawal)

question

Areas of the brain that alcohol effects

answer

CEREBELLUM - this is the correction center of the brain and when alcohol effects the correction center, that's what results in being off-balance, dizziness, etc. VENTRAL STRIATUM AND PREFRONTAL CORTEX - when the responsibility of these areas are inhibited, you engage in more impulsive behavior HIPPOCAMPUS - when this area is affected, it results in a loss in memory

question

function of the cerebellum

answer

-movement -balance -complex motor function

question

function of the ventral striatum and prefrontal cortex

answer

-brain's reward system -regulates impulsive behavior

question

function of the hippocampus

answer

-stores memory

question

benzodiazepines and barbiturates

answer

-function similarly to alcohol except that they bind to different receptors

question

opiate's effect on the brain

answer

-bind to opioid receptors (ex. mu, delta, and kappa receptors) -the peptide called enkephalin activates the opioid receptors (ex. endorphins)

question

endorphins

answer

-hormones that are secreted within the brain/nervous system (endogenous) -endogenous variation of morphine -interact with the dopamine system by decreasing the inhibitory effects of GABA--> which leads to an increased secretion of dopamine -***involved in pain and reward processing

question

heroin

answer

drug that causes an intense feeling of euphoria and the inability to feel pain

question

heroin's effect on the brain

answer

-when this drug enters the brain, it is converted into morphine -binds to opioid receptors in the reward center -decrease production of GABA - results increase in production of dopamine (causes the feeling of euphoria) -SHORT TERM effects - 1) Mesolimbic System (reward system) - causes huge feeling of euphoria -area that leads to addiction 2) Brainstem and Spinal Cord (pain pathway) - causes Analgesia--> this is what leads to death - breathing and heart function will slow down (this is the result of heroin interacting with the brainstem) -area that causes withdrawal symptoms -LONG TERM effects - 1) changes white and grey matter (because of low blood circulation) 2) the prefrontal cortex is affected - which is responsible for impulse control and reward -***this part of the brain being affected is what leads to tolerance/dependence

question

analgesia

answer

inability to feel pain

question

dependence

answer

what causes the withdrawal symptoms when you stop taking a drug

question

how dependence occurs when taking heroin

answer

-when heroin is converted to morphine, the morphine mimics the brain's natural endorphins -Since the body can't distinguish between morphine and the natural endorphins AND because the brain has been re-wired to function with heroin - the brain thinks it's producing a normal amount of endorphins (but that's just the heroin/morphine) -As a result, the body stops producing natural endorphins and becomes dependent on the heroin

question

fentanyl

answer

-heroin's synthetic and much stronger cousin -enters the brain much more quickly than heroin, reaching and binding to its receptors before standard morphine -causes a very quick and intense sense of euphoria

question

overdose of heroin

answer

-since heroin is a CNS depressant, it slows down heart rate and breathing

question

Narcan

answer

-blocks the effects of opioids -reverses the effects of too many opioids binding to their receptors -but this is only a temporary solution

question

LSD

answer

-altered emotions -enhanced introspection -sense of being in a dreamlike state -hallucinations -illusions -alterations in perception of time and space -synesthesia -not physiologically addictive -doesn't act on the mesolimbic pathway -was once/is used for treatment of mental illnesses (b/c it alters thoughts and perceptual experiences)

question

synesthesia

answer

-when someone's senses are blended -ex. someone that sees music or hears colors

question

LSD's effect on the brain

answer

-widespread activity within the brain -enhances the effects of the serotonin system (system that maintains mood balance) -increases disorder/disorganization in the brain -areas of the brain that don't normally communicate with each other now communicate with each other

question

short term effects of LSD

answer

-neuroplasticity -synesthesia -rapidly shifting emotions ranging from terror and despair to joy and gratitude -experience many emotions at once -sense of connectedness with people and universe (ego dissolution) -increase in creative/associate thinking

question

long term effects of LSD

answer

1) neuroplasticity (***recreational use/abuse***) -can trigger or worsen underlying psychological patterns -one-time use can cause irreversible changes in the user's mental state (ex. emotional problems or emergence of psychosis/psychotic symptoms) 2) neuroplasticity (***clinical setting***) -therapeutic potential (ex. terminal-illness related anxiety, depression, PTSD, etc.)

question

Marijuana

answer

drug that has diverse psychological effects: -altered sensations -increased appetite -euphoria -disinhibition -relaxation -impaired memory and motor performance -primary active ingredient = THC

question

cannabinoid receptors

answer

-receptors activated by THC -concentrated in the basal ganglia, substantia nigra, cerebellum, hippocampus, and cerebral cortex - which are all involved in coordination, memory, and locomotor activity -can inhibit many neurotransmitters - ex. dopamine, norepinephrine, acetylcholine, glutamate, and GABA -Anandamide (an endogenous substance that mimics marijuana) can also bind to cannabinoid receptors

question

why marijuana is hard to study

answer

-no standardized chemical components; harder to get in the lab than cocaine -controversy whether it constitutes a "drug of abuse" - the evidence is mixed (ex. gateway drug) -doesn't appear to work in the same systems as many other drugs - the body has "endocannabinoid receptors"

question

oxytocin + vasopressin

answer

-peptide hormones involved in prosocial behaviors (ex. trust, empathy, and altruism) -both released by the posterior pituitary gland

question

acetylcholine

answer

-neurotransmitter involved in memory and cognition in the CNS -motor and parasympathetic functions in the PNS

question

nitric oxide

answer

-neurotransmitter released by postsynaptic neurons to affect the axons of presynaptic neuron --> ***retrograde transmission*** (how a neurotransmitter travels "backwards") -also, a gas that can act as a retrograde neurotransmitter --> can readily pass through the cell membrane to modulate neurotransmission

question

drug dependence

answer

-how the brain changes in response to continued use of a drug -then leads to the need for the drug to maintain physiological functions

question

tolerance

answer

-when increasingly larger doses of a drug are needed to achieve the same desired effect

question

drug sensitization

answer

an INCREASE in drug efficiency on repeated use

question

what caffeine does in the brain

answer

-involved with adenosine receptors -normally, activation of these receptors by adenosine slows down neural activity and makes you sleepy (as adenosine builds up as a buy-product of active neurons) -however, when this drug binds to the adenosine receptors, it blocks access of the adenosine to the receptors--> so neural activity speeds up

Chapter 4 – Neurochemistry, Neuropsychopharmacology, and Drug Addiction – Flashcards

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