Chapter 30-AP Euro-The Cold War – Flashcards

A. The Soviet Union and the US began to quarrel as soon as the threat of Germany disappeared. -Hostility between the Eastern and Western powers was a logical outgrowth of military developments, wartime agreements, and long-standing differences

In 1942 feared that bargaining would encourage Stalin to make a separate peace pact with Hitler (focused on unconditional surrender)

November 1943 Stalin, Roosevelt, and Churchill (The Big Three) reaffirmed their determination to crush Germany -GB wanted to follow up their Italian campaign with the US -US decided to stick with Stalin's plan of frontal assault through France

USSR troops and British/US troops would come together in defeated Germany along a north-south line and that only Soviet troops would liberate eastern Europe (basic shape of post-war Europe was already emerging)

-Red Army occupied: Poland, Bulgaria, Romania, Hungary, part of Yugoslavia, and much of Czechoslovakia -American/British forces were yet to cross the Rhine in Germany, were still far from defeating Japan

-Germany was to be divided into zones of occupation, and was to pay war reparations to the Soviet Union and the US -Stalin agrees to declare war on Japan -Eastern European Governments were to have free elections but were to be Pro-Russian -Elsewhere, pro-Soviet "coalition" governments of several parties were formed, but the key ministerial posts were reserved for Moscow-trained communists

Free elections

-Americans and million of voters wanted free elections throughout Eastern Europe -Stalin wanted absolute military security from Germany and other potential Eastern allies -Stalin believed that only communist states could be truly dependent allies and thought that free elections would create independent governments

-May 1945 Truman cut off all financial aid to the USSR and declared he would not recognize any government that was established by force -March 1946 Churchill announced that an "iron curtain" had fallen across the continent -"Bring the boys home" was a response of the people of the US and tried to avoid conflict as much as possible

-Communist countries of Italy and France began to uncover American plots to "take over Europe" and began to challenge their own governments -USSR began to put pressure on Turkey, Iran, and Greece while a civil war raged in China

-Was meant to "contain" all Soviet aims -Truman asked congress for military aid for Greece and Turkey (areas GB could not protect)

Secretary of State George Marshall offered Europe economic aid -To help rebuild much of Europe and to help protect themselves from Communist aims

-The seizure of power in Czechoslovakia in February of 1948 was antidemocratic and it greatly strengthened Western fears of limitless communist expansion -Blocked all traffic through the Soviet zone of Berlin (Berlin Airlift-suppies from the Americans to Western Berlin)

North Atlantic Treaty Organization -Against Soviet Powers

-1949 Communists triumphed in China -North Korea invaded South Korea in 1950, American led UN forces under Douglas MacArthur saved the South Koreans -China enters the war, MacArthur wants to invade them, Truman refuses, fires him -1953 truce was declares, US keeps containment policy on Asia but backs up from fighting China

-When the eastern European power invited Nazi racist imperialism, the appeasing Western democracies did nothing but still asked themselves could they united with Stalin to stop Hitler without giving Stalin great gains on his western borders (global confrontation) -After Hitler's invasion of Soviet Union, the Western powers preferred ignorance -But later when Stalin began to claim the spoils of victory, the US began to protest and professed outrage; opposition possibly encouraged more aggressive measures by Stalin

-Runaway inflation and black markets -13 million Germans were driven from their homes into a much reduced Germany -Russians were seizing factories and equipment in their zones for a form of reparations -1945-46 did not show much better conditions for Western Germany either -1947 Germany was on the verge of total collapse

Emerged as a party in 1946 -In Italy Christian Democrats won total majority in 1948 first leader was Alcide De Gasperi who called for political democracy, economic reconstruction, and moderate social reform -France: General Charles de Gaulle, (wartime leader of the Free French) resigned after having re-established free and democratic Fourth Republic -The purified Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) found new and able leadership among its Catholics and in 1949, Konrad Adenauer, the former mayor of Cologne and anti-Nazi, began his long, highly successful democratic rule -The Christian Democrats were inspired and united by a common Christian and European heritage and rejected authoritarianism and narrow nationalism

-Provided fresh leadership and pushed for social change and economic reform(family allowances, health insurance, public housing) -Britain establishes the Labour Party "welfare state" with free health care and nationalized industries)

-American aid helped the process of economic performance off to a fast start -Economic growth was the number one goal of Western powers, wanted to avoid the Great Depression again -People were willing to work for low wages -Consumer products had been invented or perfected -Common Market was created "stimulated economy"

Minister of Economy in Western Germany -Broke away from the Nazi economy and created a free-market economy while maintaing the social welfare network from the Hitler era -Wanted to reform the currency, and abolish rationing and price controls (free-market capitalism)

Saved the French economy -Used the nationalized banks to funnel money into key industries (private economy)

-Republics re-established in France, Holland, West Germany, and Italy -Constitutional monarchs in Belgium, Holland, and Norway -Democratic governments thrived -Freedoms and liberties for people were established -Christian Democrats were 100% committed to "building Europe" -Many people believed that a "European Nation" was necessary to have an influence in world affairs again

-Two French statesmen, the planner Jean Monnet and Foreign Minister Robert Schuman, took the lead in 1950 and called for a special international organization to control and integrate all European steel and coal production -West Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg accepted the French idea in 1952 but the British would have no part of the organization The immediate economic goal—a single steel and coal market without national tariffs or quotas—was rapidly realized and the political goal was to bind the six member nations so closely together economically that war among them would eventually become impossible

1957 the six nations of the Coal and Steel community signed the treaty to create the European Economic Community (the common market) -First goal was the gradual reduction of all tariffs among the six in order to create a single market as large as the US -Other goals included the free movement of capital and labor and common economic policies and institutions (encouraged companies to specialize)

1960s -Mired in a bitter colonial war in Algeria, the French turned in 1958 to General de Gaulle, who established the Fifth Republic and ruled as its president until 1969 -De Gaulle viewed the United States as the main threat to genuine French and European independence; he withdrew all French military forces from the "American-controlled" NATO, developed France's own nuclear weapons, and vetoed the scheduled advent of majority rule within the Common Market

-Rising demand in Asian and African countries for self-determination, racial equality, and personal dignity (demand spread from the intellectuals from WWI) -Colonial empires had been shaken in 1939 and it was set up for independence movements

1945 -Imperial rulers had been driven from large parts of South Asia by the Japanese and in those areas Europeans now faced strong nationalist movements -Empire had rested on self-confidence and self-righteousness; Europeans had believed their superiority to be not only technical and military but also morally -The horrors of the Second World War gave opponents of imperialism much greater influence in Europe and many Europeans in 1945 had little taste for bloody colonial wars and wanted to concentrate on rebuilding at home

Under the leadership of British-educated lawyer Mohandas "Mahatma" Gandhi -By the 1920s and 1930s Gandhi built a mass movement preaching nonviolent "noncooperation" with the British and in 1935, Gandhi wrested from the frustrated British a new constitution that was almost an independence -When the Labour party came to power in Great Britain in 1945, it was ready to relinquish sovereignty as India had become a large financial burden to Britain -The obstacle to India's independence posed by conflict between India's Hindu and Muslim populations were resolved in 1947 through the creation of two states, predominately Hindu India and Muslim Pakistan

A broad alliance of nationalist forces within the Soviet-supported Kuomintang (National People's party) was dedicated to unifying China -In 1927 Chiang Kai-shek (1887-1975), successor to Sun Yat-sen and leader of the Kuomintang, broke with his more radically communist allies headed by Mao Zedong and tried to destroy them and in 1931, to escape Kuomintang armies, Mao led his followers on an incredible 5000-mile march to remote northern China -War could not force Mao and Chiang to cooperate and by late 1945, it had erupted into civil war; Stalin gave Mao some aid, and the Americans gave Chiang much more aid -Winning the support of the peasantry by promising to expropriate the big landowners, better-organized communists forced the Nationalists to withdraw to Taiwan in 1949 -Mao and the communists united China's 550 million inhabitants in a strong centralized state, expelled foreigners, and began building a new society along Soviet lines, with mass arrests, forced-labor camps, and ceaseless propaganda -The peasantry was collectivized, and the inevitable five-year plans concentrated successfully on the expansion of heavy industry

-1946 Philippines granted independence peacefully from the US -GB granted Sri Lanka and Burma independence in 1948 -Indonesia had to fight the Dutch in order to reconquer the Dutch East Indies in 1949

-French tried to re-establish rule in Indochina, but despite American aid lost in 1954 under Ho Chi Minh -Supported by the USSR and China -Indochina was not unified, put into two separate states, US then invaded (Vietnam War)

-In 1944 the French gave up League of Nations mandates in Syria and Lebanon -British leaves Palestine in 1947 -UN divides Palestine into two nations: one Jewish and one Arabic, Jews accepted Arabs did not, invaded them in 1948 -Jews won, 900,000 Arabs expelled, Holocaust survivors streamed into Palestine, Theodor Herzl's Zionist dream came true

Arab defeat in 1948 triggered a revolution, Gamal Abdel Nasser drove out the pro-Western king -1956 nationalized the Suez Canal Company (the last symbol of Western power) pissed off the French, British, and Israelis, invaded Egypt -Americans joined with the Soviets in Egypt's triumph -Algeria stayed with the French -Algeria was freed after a century of French rule in 1962

-GB colonies were succeeded much more smoothly, little to no bloodshed, British Commonwealth of Nations created -In 1958 the clever de Gaulle offered the leaders of French black Africa the choice of a total break with France or immediate independence with a kind of French commonwealth (identified with French culture and wanted aid from France); many leaders saw Africa untapped markets for their industrial goods, raw materials for their factories, outlets for profitable investment, and good temporary jobs for people -Western European countries actually managed to increase their economic and cultural ties with their former African colonies in the 1960s and 1970s (situation led many to charge that western Europe had imposed a system of neocolonialism)

Prohibited discrimination in public services and on job

Guaranteed all blacks the right to vote

Declared by Lyndon B. Johnson -Congress created a number of antipoverty programs intended to aid all poor Americans and to bring economic equality to the country (welfare state)

Fostered Russian nationalism and a relaxation of dictatorial terror (rare unity between Soviet rulers and Russian people)

1945-1953 -Even before the war ended, Stalin was moving his country back toward rigid dictatorship and by early 1946, Stalin was publicly singing the old tune that war was inevitable as long as capitalism (enemy in West provided excuse for control) -Many returning soldiers and ordinary citizens were purged in 1945 and 1946, as Stalin revived the terrible forced-labor camps of the 1930s -Culture and art were also purged in violent campaigns that reimposed rigid anti-Western ideological conformity; many artists were denounced and in 1949, Stalin launched a verbal attack on Soviet Jews accusing them of being pro-Western

-5 year plans reenacted, military and industry were most important, people, agriculture, housing ignored -Wanted to spread communism to Eastern Europe -Rigid ideological indoctrination, attacks on religion, and a lack of civil liberties were soon facts of life; industry was nationalized, the middle class stripped of possessions -Industrialization lurched forward without regard for human costs (collectivization)

The resistance leader and Communist chief of Yugoslavia, was able to resist Soviet domination successfully (Tito stood up to Stalin in 1948) -Yugoslavia prospered as a multiethnic state until it began to break apart in the 1980s and Tito's proclamation of independence infuriated Stalin; popular Communists leaders who had led the resistance against Germany were purged as Stalin sought to create absolutely obedient instruments of domination in eastern Europe

1953, Stalin finally dies -Even as Stalin's heirs struggled for power, they realized that reforms were necessary because of the widespread fear and hatred of Stalin's political terrorism -The power of the secret police was curbed, and many of the forced-labor camps were gradually closed; change was also necessary for economic reasons -Moreover, Stalin's belligerent foreign policy had directly led to a strong Western alliance, which isolated the Soviet Union from the rest of Western Europe

-Conservatives wanted to make as few changes as possible to the government -Reformers, led by Nikita Khrushchev, argued for major innovations; Khrushchev had joined the party as a coal miner in 1918 and emerged as the new ruled in 1955

-Khrushchev launched an all-out attack on Stalin and his crimes at a closed session of the Twentieth Party Congress in 1956; Khrushchev's "secret speech" was read at Communist party meetings throughout the country

-The Communist party maintained its monopoly on political power, but Khrushchev shook up the party and brought in new members -Some resources were shifted from the heavy industries and the military toward consumer goods and agriculture, and Stalinist controls over workers was relaxed -The Soviet Union's very low standard of living finally began to improve and continued to rise substantially throughout the booming 1960s

-Boris Pasternak finished Doctor Zhivago in 1956 which was a master-piece and a powerful challenge to communism; a pre-Revolutionary intellectual who triumphs in Stalinist years because of his humanity and Christian spirit -Aleksnadr Solzhenitsyn created a sensation when his One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich was published in the Soviet Union in 1962; his novel portrays in detail life in a Stalinist concentration camp (indictment of the past)

Peaceful coexistence with capitalism -Austria freed after 10 years of Cold War conflicts -Began wooing Asia and African countries (communist or not) -De-Stalinization stimulated rebelliousness in the eastern European satellites and communist reformers and the masses were quickly emboldened to seek much great liberty and national independence (Poland took the lead in 1956)

-led by students and workers, the people of Budapest installed a liberal communist reformer as their new chief in 1956; -Soviets leave, promised free elections, lol jk they come back and crush Hungary -Hoped the US would come and save them, no luck there, found out that their only solution was to drive for small domestic improvements while following Russia's foreign policies

-The basic reason for this development was the Khrushchev's Communist colleagues saw de-Stalinization as a dangerous, two-sided threat (dead dictator's henchmen?) -The widening campaign of de-Stalinization posed a clear threat to the dictatorial authority of the party (party had to tighten up considerable in time) -Asked the western allies to leave West Berlin, they didn't and he backed down -As relations with China were simmering down Khrushchev ordered the Berlin Wall to be built in 1961 -JFK agreed to the wall

Khrushchev ordered missiles with nuclear warheads installed in Fidel Castro's communist Cuba in 1962; -President Kennedy countered with a naval blockage against Cuba and Khrushchev removed the missiles to protect Castro's regime -Following the Cuban fiasco, Khrushchev's influence declined rapidly

-Soviet leaders also launched a massive arms buildup yet Brezhnev and company proceed cautiously in the mid-1960s and avoided direct confrontation with the US -The 1960s brought modest liberalization and more consumer goods to eastern Europe, as well as somewhat greater national autonomy (Poland and Romania)

1968 gained a majority and voted out the long-time Stalinist leader in favor of Alexander Dubcek -Dubcek and his allies believed that they could reconcile genuine socialism with personal freedom and internal party democracy and thus local decision making by trade unions, managers, and consumers replaced rigid bureaucratic planning, and censorship was relaxed; reform program proved enormously popular -Although he proclaimed his loyalty to the Warsaw Pact, the determination of the Czechoslovak reforms to build what they called "socialism with a human face" frightened hard-line Communists (strong in Poland and East Germany) -The Soviet Union feared that a liberalized Czechoslovakia would eventually be drawn

August 1968, 500,000 Russian and allied eastern European troops suddenly occupied Czechoslovakia; the Czechoslovaks made no attempt to resist militarily and the arrested leaders surrendered to Soviet demands

According to which the Soviet Union and its allies had the right to intervene in any socialist country whenever they saw the need -The 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia was the crucial even of the Brezhnev era -The invasion demonstrated the determination of the ruling elite to maintain the status quo in the Soviet bloc; in the U.S.S.R that determination resulted in further repression

-The development by British scientists of radar to detect enemy aircraft was a particularly important outcome of this new kind of sharply focused research; a radically improved radar system played a key role in Britain's victory in the battle for air supremacy in 1940 -The air war stimulated the development of jet aircraft and spurred research on electronic computers, which calculated complex mathematical relationships involving accuracy -The most spectacular result of directed scientific research during the war was the atomic bomb and a letter from Einstein to President FDR and ongoing experiments by nuclear physicists led to the top-secret Manhattan Project, which ballooned into a crash program -After three years of effort, the first atomic bomb was successfully tested in July 1945 and in August 1945, two bombs were dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, ending the war

Big Science could attack extremely difficult problems, from better products for consumers to new and improved weapons for the military -Big Science was very expensive, requiring financing from governments/corporations -Populous, victorious, and wealthy, the United States took the lead in Big Science after World War II; between 1945 and 1965, spending on scientific research and development in the U.S. grew five times as fast as the national income, and by 1965 (3% of income) -It was generally accepted that government should finance science in both the "capitalist" United States and the "socialist" Soviet Union (science was not demobilized after war) -Scientists remained a critical part of every major military establishment and a large portion of all postwar scientific research went for "defense" -After 1945 roughly one-quarter of all men and women trained in science and engineering in the West were employed full-time in the production of weapons to kill other humans

-In 1957 the Soviets used long-range rockets developed in their nuclear weapons program to put a satellite in orbit; in 1961 they sent the world's first cosmonaut circling the globe -President Kennedy made an all-out U.S. commitment to catch up with the Soviets and land a crewed spacecraft on the moon "before the decade was out": using pure science, applied technology, and up to $5 billion a year, the Apollo Program achieved its ambitious objective in 1969 and four more moon landings followed by 1972 -The rise of Big Science and of close ties between science and technology greatly altered the lives of scientists; there were four times as many scientists in the West in 1975 as in 1945

Feared that Europe was falling hopelessly behind the United States in science and technology but Europe was already responding with such Big Science projects as the Concorde supersonic passenger airliner

Its high degree of specialization, for no one could possibly master a broad field (specializations rates of knowledge and applications) -Had to work as members of a team -Much of work went on in large bureaucratic organizations and growth of large scientific bureaucracies in government/private enterprise suggested how they permeated society -Modern science became highly, even brutally, competitive

Nobel Prize winner James Watson's book which tells how in 1953 Watson and an Englishman Francis Crick, discovered the structure of DNA, the molecule of heredity

Changes in the structure of the middle class were influential in the general drift toward a less rigid class structure (ownership of property and strong family ties had meant wealth) -After 1945 a new breed of managers and experts replaced traditional property owners as the leaders of the middle class; ability to serve the needs of a big organization largely replaced inherited property and family connections in determining an individual's social position in the middle and upper middle classes (middle class grew massively) -Rapid industrial and technological expansion created in large corporations and government agencies a powerful demand for technologists and managers -The old properties middle class lost control of many family-owned businesses and many small businesses simply passed out of existence as owners joined the salaried employees Top managers and ranking civil servants therefore represented the model for a new middle class or salaried specialists; they were well paid and highly trained (engineering, accounting) -Managers and technocrats, of whom a small but growing number were women, could pass on the opportunity for all-important advanced education to their children (positions not passed); the new middle class was based largely on specialized skills and high levels of education -The structure of the lower classes also became more flexible and open as the industrial working class ceased to expand and job opportunities for white-collar and service employees grew rapidly; such employees bore resemblance to new middle class of salaried specialists -European governments were reducing class tensions with a series of social security reforms; other programs were new, like comprehensive national health system directed by the state and most countries introduced family allowances (grants to parents to help raise children) -Reforms promoted greater equality because they were expensive and were paid for in part by higher taxes on the rich; rising standard of living and spread of standardized consumer goods also worked to level Western society, as the percent of income spent on food/drink declined

-Like Americans, Europeans filled their homes with washing machines, vacuum cleaners, refrigerators, dishwashers, radios, TVs, and stereos; the purchase of consumer goods was greatly facilitated by installment purchasing, which allowed people to buy on credit -The expansion of social security reduced the need to accumulate savings for hard times and ordinary people were increasingly willing to take on debt (growth of consumerism) -Leisure and recreation occupied an important place in consumer societies and the most astonishing leisure-time development was the blossoming of mass travel and tourism

More and more women began to work outside of the home -This historic development prepared the way for the success of a new generation of feminist thinkers and a militant women's movement in the 1970s and 1980s -With the growth of industry, people began to marry earlier, death rates fell, and population grew rapidly; by the late 19th century, improved diet, higher incomes, and the use of contraception within marriage were producing a transition to low birthrates and death rates

-In the 1950s and 1960s, the typical woman in the West married early and bore her children quickly; postwar baby boom did make for a fairly rapid population growth -In the 1960s the long-term decline in birthrates resumed, and from the mid-1970s on in many European countries, the total population stopped growing from natural increase -Pregnancy and child care occupied a much smaller portion of a woman's life than in earlier times; by the early 1970s, many Western women were having their last baby by 27 -In the postwar years, motherhood no longer absorbed the energies of a lifetime, and more and more married women looked for new roles in the world of work outside the family

-The economy boom from about 1950 to 1973 and created a strong demand for labor -The economy continued its gradual shift away from heavy industries to the "white-collar" service industries, such as government, education, trade, and health care -Young Western women shared fully in the postwar education revolution and could take advantage of the growing need for office-workers and well-trained professionals -The trend went the furthest in communist eastern Europe, where women were one half of all employed persons; in noncommunist countries, the married women workforce rose

-Married women entering the labor force faced widespread, long-established discrimination in pay, advancement, and occupational choice in comparison to men -As the divorce rate rose in the 1960s, part-time work meant poverty for some families -Married working women still carried most of the child-raising and housekeeping responsibilities - a reason for many to accept part-time employment -The injustices that married women encountered as wage earners contributed greatly to the subsequent movement for women's equality and emancipation (employment as condition)

-Young people in the United States took the lead; American college students in the 1950s were called the "Silent Generation" but by the late 1950s the "beat" movement was stoking fires of revolt in selected urban enclaves, such as the Near North side of Chicago -The young fashioned a highly publicized subculture that blended radical politics, unbridled personal experimentation and new artistic styles (spread to western Europe) -Bob Dylan: "the times are a' changing'"

-More young people engaged in sexual intercourse, and they did at an earlier age, in part because of safe and effective contraceptive pills could eliminate risk of pregnancy -Even more significant was the growing tendency of young unmarried people to live together in a separate household on a semi-permanent basis, with little thought of getting married or having children (the young defied social customs of legitimate sexual unions)

-Mass communications and youth travel linked countries and continents together -The postwar baby boom mean that young people became an unusually large part of the population and could therefore exercise exception influence on society as a whole -Postwar prosperity and greater equality gave young people more purchasing power which enabled them to set their own trends and patterns of consumption (generational loyalty) -Prosperity meant that goods jobs were readily available (did not fear punishment)

-Student protesters embraced romanticism and revolutionary idealism, dreaming of complete freedom and simpler, purer societies; many young radicals looked to newly independent countries of Asia and Africa and their better societies that were being built -About the Vietnam War, many politically active students believed that the older generation was fighting an immoral and imperialistic war against small and heroic people -Student protests in western Europe highlighted more general problems of youth, education, and a society of specialists (education limited to a small elite in Europe) -By 1960, at least three times as many students were going to some kind of university as had attended before the war, and the number continued to rise until the 1970s -Reflecting the development of a more democratic class structure and a growing awareness that higher education was the key to success, European universities gave more scholarships and opened doors to more students from the lower middle and lower classes -The rapid expansion of higher education meant that classes were badly overcrowded and competition for grades became intense; many students felt the education was inadequate

-The most far-reaching of these revolts occurred in France in 1968; students occupied buildings and took over the University of Paris, which led to violent clashes with police -Most students demanded both changes in the curriculum and a real voice in running the university; rank-and-file workers ignored the advice of their cautious union officials, and a more or less spontaneous general strike spread across France in May 1968 -Declaring that he was in favor of university reforms and higher minimum wages, he moved troops toward Paris and called for new elections; the masses of France voted overwhelmingly for de Gaulle's part and a return to law and order (shaken, within a year, de Gaulle resigned)

-American forces in the South gradually grew to half a million men, and the United States bombed North Vietnam with ever-greater intensity but there was no invasion of the North or naval blockade (American people grew weary and the American leadership cracked)

ixon suspended the draft, so hated on college campuses, and cut American forces in Vietnam from 550,000 to 24,000 in four years -President Nixon launched a flank attack in diplomacy as he journeyed to China in 1972 and reached a spectacular if limited reconciliation with the People's Republic of China; Nixon took advantage of China's fears of the Soviet Union and undermined North Korea -President Nixon and Secretary of State Henry Kissinger finally reached a peace agree-ment with North Vietnam which allowed remaining American forces to complete with-drawal and the United States reserved right to resume bombing if accords were broken

-Watergate resulted in a major shift of power away from presidency toward Congress, especially in foreign affairs; American aid to South Vietnam diminished in 1973, North Vietnam launched an invasion in early 1974 but Congress refused to permit response -A second consequence of the US crisis was after more than thirty-five years of battle, the Vietnamese communists unified their country in 1975 as a harsh dictatorial state -The belated fall of South Vietnam in the wake of Watergate shook America's postwar confidence and left the US divided and uncertain about its proper role in world affairs