question

What were some important factors that helped set the stage for reform?

answer

-fundamental social and economic changes and political crises that eroded state authority -the impact of political ideas derived from the Enlightenment -financial crises generated by war expenses

question

What did nobles in France enjoy?

answer

Nobles in France enjoyed not only exemption from taxation but also exclusive rights to hunt game, bear swords, and wear gold ribbon in their clothing.

question

How was european society divided into groups?

answer

Eighteenth-century European society was still legally divided into groups with special privileges, such as the nobility and the clergy, and groups with special burdens, such as the peasantry.

question

What did middle- class groups enjoy?

answer

various middle-class groups—professionals, merchants, and guild masters—enjoyed privileges that allowed them to monopolize all sorts of economic activity.

question

What happened Due to increased agricultural production?

answer

Europe's population rose rapidly after 1750, and its cities and towns swelled in size.

question

What did inflation do?

answer

Inflation kept pace with demography, making it ever more difficult for urban people to find affordable food and living space.

question

What was one way urban people kept up, and managed to participate in the new consumer revolution?

answer

by working harder and for longer hours.

question

What did the growth of the economy create?

answer

The growth of the economy created new inequalities between rich and poor. While the poor struggled with rising prices, investors who sponsored overseas trade or the spread of manufacture in the countryside reaped great profits. Old distinctions between landed aristocracy and city merchant began to fade as enterprising nobles put money into trade and rising middle-class bureaucrats and merchants bought landed estates and noble titles.

question

What were the bourgeoisie and what did they serve?

answer

Marriages between proud nobles and wealthy, educated commoners. They served both groups' interests, and a mixed-caste elite began to take shape.

question

What was another social change?

answer

Another social change involved the racial regimes established in European colonies to enable and protect slavery.

question

By the late eighteenth century European law accepted what?

answer

that only Africans and people of African descent were subject to slavery. Even free people of color—a term for non-slaves of African or mixed African-European descent—were subject to special laws restricting the property they could own, whom they could marry, and what clothes they could wear.

question

The call for liberty was first of all?

answer

A call for human rights

question

Supporters of the cause of individual liberty demanded what?

answer

freedom to worship according to the dictates of their consciences, an end to censorship, and freedom from arbitrary laws and from judges who simply obeyed orders from the government.

question

The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, proclaimed what?

answer

Proclaimed that "Liberty consists in being able to do anything that does not harm another person."

question

The call for liberty was also a call for?

answer

A new kind of government

question

What did reformers believe?

answer

Reformers believed that the people had sovereignty—that is, that the people alone had the authority to make laws limiting an individual's freedom of action.

question

In practice, this system of government meant?

answer

Choosing legislators who represented the people and were accountable to them. Monarchs might retain their thrones, but their rule should be constrained by the will of the people.

question

Eighteenth-century liberals argued that?

answer

all citizens should have identical rights and liberties and that the nobility had no right to special privileges based on birth.

question

What distinctions did they accept?

answer

First, most eighteenth-century liberals were men of their times, and they generally believed that equality between men and women was neither practical nor desirable. Women played an important political role in the French Revolution at several points, but the men of the French Revolution limited formal political rights—the right to vote, to run for office, to participate in government—to men. Second, few questioned the inequality between blacks and whites. Even those who believed that the slave trade was unjust and should be abolished, such as Thomas Jefferson, usually felt that abolition was so socially and economically dangerous that it needed to be indefinitely postponed. Finally, liberals never believed that everyone should be equal economically.

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Great differences in wealth and income between rich and poor were perfectly acceptable. The essential point was that?

answer

every free male should have a legally equal chance at economic gain.

question

Who were The two most important thinkers to use Enlightenment goals of personal freedom and legal equality to justify liberal self-government?

answer

John Locke and the baron de Montesquieu.

question

What did Locke maintain?

answer

Locke maintained that England's long political tradition rested on "the rights of Englishmen" and on representative government through Parliament. He argued that if a government oversteps its proper function of protecting the natural rights of life, liberty, and private property, it becomes a tyranny.

question

What did Montesquieu believe?

answer

Montesquieu was also inspired by English constitutional history and the Glorious Revolution, which placed sovereignty in Parliament. He, too, believed that powerful "intermediary groups"—such as the judicial nobility of which he was a proud member—offered the best defense of liberty against despotism.

question

The belief that representative institutions could defend their liberty and interests appealed powerfully to the

answer

bourgeoisie

question

Yet liberal ideas about individual rights and political freedom also appealed to members of the

answer

hereditary nobility

question

Representative government did not mean

answer

Democracy

question

Rather, they envisioned voting for representatives as being restricted to

answer

men who owned property

question

Revolutions thus began with

answer

aspirations for equality and liberty among the social elite

question

Soon, however, dissenting voices emerged as some revolutionaries became frustrated with the limitations of classical liberal notions of equality and liberty and clamored for a fuller realization of these concepts. Depending on location, their demands included:

answer

political rights for women and free people of color, the emancipation of slaves, and government regulation to guarantee fair access to resources and to impose economic equality.

question

Where did the seven year's war take place?

answer

from central Europe to India to North America (where the conflict was known as the French and Indian War), pitting a new alliance of England and Prussia against the French and Austrians.

question

What were the origins of the seven years war?

answer

Its origins were in conflicts left unresolved at the end of the War of the Austrian Succession in 1748

question

Describe the Seven years year.

answer

In central Europe, Austria's Maria Theresa vowed to win back Silesia, which Prussia took in the war of succession, and to crush Prussia, thereby re-establishing the Habsburgs'traditional leadership in German affairs. By the end of the Seven Years' War Maria Theresa had almost succeeded, but Prussia survived with its boundaries intact.

question

The encroachment of English settlers into territory claimed by the French in the Ohio Valley resulted in

answer

skirmishes that soon became war

question

Although the inhabitants of New France were greatly outnumbered—Canada counted fifty-five thousand inhabitants, compared to 1.2 million in the thirteen English colonies—French forces

answer

achieved major victories until 1758.

question

What happened next?

answer

Then, the British diverted resources from the war in Europe, using superior sea power to destroy the French fleet and choke off French commerce around the world. In 1759 the British laid siege to Quebec for four long months, finally defeating the French in a battle that sealed the fate of France in North America.

question

British victory on all colonial fronts was ratified in the

answer

1763 Treaty of Paris

question

What were the results of the 1763 Treaty of Paris?

answer

Canada and all French territory east of the Mississippi River passed to Britain, and France ceded Louisiana to Spain as compensation for Spain's loss of Florida to Britain. France also gave up most of its holdings in India, opening the way to British dominance on the subcontinent

question

By 1763 Britain had realized its goal of

answer

monopolizing a vast trading and colonial empire, but at a tremendous cost in war debt. France emerged from the conflict humiliated and broke, but with its profitable Caribbean colonies intact.

question

In the aftermath of war, both British and French governments had to

answer

raise taxes to repay loans, raising a storm of protest and demands for fundamental reform. Since the Caribbean colony of Saint-Domingue remained French, revolutionary turmoil in the mother country would directly affect its population.

question

The high cost of the Seven Years' War doubled the

answer

British National Debt

question

Breaking with tradition, the British announced that they would

answer

maintain a large army in North America and tax the colonies directly.

question

In 1765 Parliament passed the Stamp Act, which

answer

levied taxes on a long list of commercial and legal documents, diplomas, newspapers, almanacs, and playing cards. A stamp glued to each article indicated that the tax had been paid.

question

These measures seemed perfectly reasonable to the British, for a much heavier stamp tax already existed in Britain, and proceeds from the tax were to fund the

answer

Defense of the colonies

question

Why did Parliament repel the Stamp Act?

answer

Because the colonists vigorously protested the Stamp Act by rioting and by boycotting British goods.

question

This dispute raised important political questions. To what extent could the British government reassert its power while limiting the authority of elected colonial bodies? Who had the right to make laws for Americans? The British government replied that?

answer

Americans were represented in Parliament, albeit indirectly (like most British people), and that Parliament ruled throughout the empire. Many Americans felt otherwise. In the words of John Adams, a major proponent of colonial independence, "A Parliament of Great Britain can have no more rights to tax the colonies than a Parliament of Paris." Thus British colonial administration and parliamentary supremacy came to appear as grave threats to existing American liberties.

question

Americans' resistance to these threats was fed by the great degree of

answer

independence they had long enjoyed. In British North America, unlike in England and Europe, no powerful established church existed, and religious freedom was taken for granted. Colonial assemblies made the important laws, which were seldom overturned by the British government. Also, the right to vote was much more widespread than in England. In many parts of colonial Massachusetts, for example, as many as 95 percent of adult males could vote.

question

Who dominated colonial society?

answer

Independent farmers.

question

Under the Tea Act of that year, the British government permitted

answer

the financially hard-pressed East India Company to ship tea from China directly to its agents in the colonies rather than through London middlemen, who sold to independent merchants in the colonies. Thus the company secured a profitable monopoly on the tea trade, and colonial merchants were excluded.

question

The price on tea was actually lowered for colonists, but the act generated a great deal of opposition because of the

answer

monopoly it gave to the East India Company.

question

In protest, Boston men disguised

answer

In protest, Boston men disguised as Native Americans had a rowdy Tea Party in which they boarded East India Company ships and threw tea from them into the harbor.

question

In response, the so-called Coercive Acts of 1774 did what?

answer

closed the port of Boston, curtailed local elections, and expanded the royal governor's power.

question

In September 1774, the First Continental Congress—consisting of colonial delegates who sought at first to peacefully resolve conflicts with Britain—met in

answer

Philadelphia. The more radical members of this assembly argued successfully against concessions to the English crown. The British Parliament also rejected compromise, and in April 1775 fighting between colonial and British troops began at Lexington and Concord.

question

The uncompromising attitude of the British government and its use of German mercenaries did much to

answer

dissolve loyalties to the home country and to unite the separate colonies.

question

Common Sense (1775), a brilliant attack by the recently arrived English radical Thomas Paine (1737-1809), also mobilized

answer

public opinion in favor of independence.

question

Paine's tract ridiculed the idea of a small island ruling a

answer

Great continent

question

On July 4, 1776, the Second Continental Congress adopted the

answer

Declaration of Independence.

question

What did the Declaration of Independence list?

answer

Written by Thomas Jefferson and others, this document boldly listed the tyrannical acts committed by George III (r. 1760-1820) and confidently proclaimed the natural rights of mankind and the sovereignty of the American states.

question

What was the effect of the Declaration of Independence?

answer

The Declaration of Independence in effect universalized the traditional rights of English people and made them the rights of all mankind. It stated that "all Men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Happiness."

question

After the Declaration of Independence, the conflict often took the form of a

answer

civil war pitting patriots against Loyalists, those who maintained an allegiance to the Crown.

question

Describe the Loyalists.

answer

The Loyalists tended to be wealthy and politically moderate. Many patriots—such as John Hancock and George Washington—were also wealthy, but they willingly allied themselves with farmers and artisans in a broad coalition. This coalition harassed the Loyalists and confiscated their property to help pay for the war, causing more than thirty thousand of them to flee, mostly to Canada.

question

On the international scene, the French wanted revenge against the British for

answer

the humiliating defeats of the Seven Years' War. Thus they sympathized with the rebels and supplied guns and gunpowder from the beginning of the conflict.

question

Who was Lafayette?

answer

a dashing young nobleman. He quickly became one of the most trusted generals of George Washington, who was commanding American troops.

question

In 1778 the French government offered a formal alliance to the

answer

American ambassador in Paris, Benjamin Franklin, and in 1779 and 1780 the Spanish and Dutch declared war on Britain.

question

Catherine the Great of Russia helped organize the League of Armed Neutrality to protect

answer

neutral shipping rights and succeeded in hampering Britain's naval power. Thus by 1780 Britain was engaged in an imperial war against most of Europe as well as the thirteen colonies.

question

In these circumstances, and in the face of severe reverses in India, in the West Indies, and at Yorktown in Virginia, a new British government decided to

answer

cut its losses and end the war.

question

American officials in Paris were receptive to negotiating a deal with England alone, for they feared that

answer

France wanted a treaty that would bottle up the new United States east of the Allegheny Mountains and give British holdings west of the Alleghenies to France's ally, Spain. Thus the American negotiators deserted their French allies and accepted the extraordinarily favorable terms Britain offered.

question

Under the Treaty of Paris of 1783, Britain recognized

answer

the independence of the thirteen colonies and ceded all its territory between the Allegheny Mountains and the Mississippi River to the Americans.

question

Assembling in Philadelphia in the summer of 1787, the delegates to the Constitutional Convention were determined to

answer

end the period of economic depression, social uncertainty, and leadership under a weak central government that had followed independence.

question

The delegates thus decided to grant the federal, or central, government important powers:

answer

regulation of domestic and foreign trade, the right to tax, and the means to enforce its laws.

question

Strong rule would be placed squarely in the context of

answer

representative self-government.

question

Senators and congressmen would be the lawmaking delegates of the voters, and the president of the republic would be an

answer

elected official

question

The central government would operate in Montesquieu's framework of checks and balances, under which authority was distributed across three different branches—

answer

the executive, legislative, and judicial branches—that would systematically balance one another, preventing one interest from gaining too much power. The power of the federal government would in turn be checked by that of the individual states

question

When the results of the secret deliberations of the Constitutional Convention were presented to the states for ratification,

answer

A great public debate

question

The opponents of the proposed Constitution—the __________—charged that the framers of the new document had taken too much power from the individual states and made the federal government too strong.

answer

Antifederalists

question

To overcome these objections, the Federalists promised to spell out these basic freedoms as soon as the new Constitution was adopted. The result was

answer

the first ten amendments to the Constitution, which the first Congress passed shortly after it met in New York in March 1789. These amendments, ratified in 1791, formed an effective Bill of Rights to safeguard the individual.

question

Most of them—trial by jury, due process of law, the right to assemble, freedom from unreasonable search—had their origins in

answer

English law and the English Bill of Rights of 1689. Other rights—the freedoms of speech, the press, and religion—reflected natural-law theory and the strong value colonists had placed on independence from the start.

question

Like the French republic that was soon to emerge, the early American republic also sought to advance the rights of

answer

African Americans, and many free people of color voted in elections to ratify the Constitution.

question

What early measures were eroded in the early nineteenth century as abolitionist fervor waned?

answer

Congress banned slavery in federal territory in 1789, voting rights for free people of colorthen the export of slaves from any state, and finally, in 1808, the import of slaves to any state.

question

The American Constitution and the Bill of Rights exemplified the great strengths and the limits of what came to be called

answer

Classical liberation

question

Liberty meant

answer

individual freedoms and political safeguards. Liberty also meant representative government but did not necessarily mean democracy, with its principle of one person, one vote.

question

Equality meant

answer

equality before the law, not equality of political participation or wealth. It did not mean equal rights for women, slaves, or indigenous peoples.

question

As did the American Revolution, the French Revolution had its immediate origins in the

answer

financial difficulties of the government.

question

The efforts of the ministers of King Louis XV (r. 1715-1774) to raise taxes to meet the expenses of the War of the Austrian Succession and the Seven Years' War were thwarted by the

answer

high courts, known as the parlements.

question

The noble judges of the parlements resented this threat to their exemption from taxation and decried the government's actions as a form of

answer

Royal depotism

question

When renewed efforts to reform the tax system met a similar fate in 1776, the government was forced to finance its enormous expenditures during the American war with

answer

Borrowed money. As a result, the national debt soared.

question

By the 1780s fully __ percent of France's annual budget went to interest payments on the ever-increasing debt. Another __ percent went to maintain the military, while __ percent was absorbed by the royal family and the court at Versailles. Less than __ percent of the national budget was available for the productive functions of the state, such as transportation and general administration. This was an impossible financial situation.

answer

50, 25, 6, 20,

question

Could the king and his ministers print money and create inflation to cover their deficits?

answer

No

question

Unlike England and Holland, which had far larger national debts relative to their populations, France had no

answer

central bank, no paper currency, and no means of creating credit.

question

Therefore, when a depressed economy and a lack of public confidence made it increasingly difficult for the government to obtain new loans in 1786, it had no alternative but to try

answer

Increasing taxes

question

Because France's tax system was unfair and out-of-date, increased revenues were possible only through

answer

Fundamental reforms. Such reforms, which would affect all groups in France's complex and fragmented society, were guaranteed to create social and political unrest.

question

Kings had always maintained mistresses, who were invariably chosen from the court nobility. Louis XV broke that pattern with Madame de Pompadour, daughter of a disgraced bourgeois financier. As the king's favorite mistress from 1745 to 1750, Pompadour exercised tremendous influence that continued even after their love affair ended. She played a key role, for example, in bringing about

answer

France's break with Prussia and its new alliance with Austria in the mid-1750s.

question

Pompadour's low birth and hidden political influence generated a stream of

answer

resentful and illegal pamphleteering. The king was being stripped of the sacred aura of God's anointed on earth (a process called desacralization) and was being reinvented in the popular imagination as a degenerate.

question

Despite the progressive desacralization of the monarchy, Louis XV would probably have prevailed had he lived longer, but he died in

answer

1774

question

The new king, Louis XVI

answer

waffled on political reform and the economy, and he proved unable to quell the rising storm of opposition

question

Spurred by a depressed economy and falling tax receipts, Louis XVI's minister of finance revived old proposals to impose a

answer

general tax on all landed property as well as to form provincial assemblies to help administer the tax, and he convinced the king to call an assembly of notables in 1787 to gain support for the idea.

question

The assembled notables, mainly important noblemen and high-ranking clergy, declared that such sweeping tax changes required the approval of the

answer

Estates General, the representative body of all three estates, which had not met since 1614.

question

Facing imminent bankruptcy, the king tried to

answer

Reassert his authority. He dismissed the notables and established new taxes by decree. In stirring language, the judges of the Parlement of Paris promptly declared the royal initiative null and void.

question

When the king tried to exile the judges,

answer

a tremendous wave of protest swept the country. Frightened investors refused to advance more loans to the state.

question

Finally in July 1788, a beaten Louis XVI bowed to public opinion and called for

answer

a spring session of the Estates General. Absolute monarchy was collapsing.

question

As its name indicates, the Estates General was

answer

a legislative body with representatives from the three orders of society: the clergy, nobility, and commoners.

question

Following centuries-old tradition each order met separately to elect delegates, first at a _____ and then at a ______ level.

answer

Local, regional

question

The local assemblies of the clergy, representing the first estate, elected mostly

answer

parish priests rather than church leaders, demonstrating their dissatisfaction with the church hierarchy.

question

The nobility, or second estate, voted in a

answer

majority of conservatives, primarily from the provinces, where nobles were less wealthy and more numerous.

question

Commoners of the third estate, who constituted over 95 percent of the population, elected primarily

answer

lawyers and government officials to represent them, with few delegates representing business and the poor.

question

In all three estates, voices spoke in favor of replacing

answer

absolutism with a constitutional monarchy in which laws and taxes would require the consent of the Estates General in regular meetings. There was also the strong feeling that individual liberties would have to be guaranteed by law and that economic regulations should be loosened.

question

On May 5, 1789, the twelve hundred delegates of the three estates gathered in Versailles for the

answer

opening session of the Estates General.

question

Despite widespread hopes for serious reform, the Estates General was almost immediately

answer

deadlocked due to arguments about voting procedures.

question

Controversy had begun during the electoral process itself, when the government confirmed that, following precedent, each estate should

answer

Meet and vote separately

question

During the lead-up to the Estates General, critics had demanded

answer

a single assembly dominated by the third estate.

question

In his famous pamphlet "What Is the Third Estate?" the abbé Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès (himself a member of the first estate) argued that the nobility was

answer

was a tiny, overprivileged minority and that the neglected third estate constituted the true strength of the French nation.

question

The government conceded that the third estate should have as many delegates as the clergy and the nobility combined, but then upheld a system granting

answer

one vote per estate instead of one vote per person. This meant that the two privileged estates could always outvote the third, even if the third estate had a majority by head count.

question

The issue came to a crisis in June 1789 when delegates of the third estate refused to meet until the king ordered the

answer

clergy and nobility to sit with them in a single body.

question

Finally, after six weeks, a few parish priests began to go over to the third estate, which on June 17 voted to call itself the

answer

National Assembly.

question

On June 20 the delegates of the third estate, excluded from their hall because of "repairs," moved to a large indoor tennis court where they swore the famous

answer

Oath of the Tennis Court, pledging not to disband until they had been recognized as a national assembly and had written a new constitution.

question

The king's response was disastrously ambivalent. On June 23 he made a conciliatory speech to a joint session in which he urged reforms, and four days later he ordered the

answer

Three estates to meet together

question

The king called an army of eighteen thousand troops toward the capital to bring the delegates under control, and on July 11 he dismissed his finance minister and other more liberal ministers. It appeared that the monarchy was prepared to renege on its promises for reform and to use

answer

Violence to restore its control

question

A poor grain harvest in 1788 caused the price of bread to

answer

soar suddenly and inflation spread quickly through the economy.

question

As a result, demand for manufactured goods

answer

collapsed, and many artisans and small traders lost work.

question

They believed that, to survive, they should have

answer

steady work and enough bread at fair prices.

question

They also feared that the dismissal of the king's liberal finance minister would put them at the mercy of

answer

aristocratic landowners and grain speculators.

question

On July 14, 1789, several hundred people stormed the

answer

Bastille (ba-STEEL), a royal prison, to obtain weapons and gunpowder for the city's defense.

question

Faced with popular violence, Louis soon announced the

answer

reinstatement of his finance minister and the withdrawal of troops from Paris. The National Assembly was now free to continue its work without the threat of royal military intervention.

question

In the summer of 1789, throughout France peasants began to

answer

rise in insurrection against their lords, ransacking manor houses and burning feudal documents that recorded their obligations. In some areas peasants reoccupied common lands enclosed by landowners and seized forests.

question

Fear of marauders and vagabonds hired by vengeful landlords—called the ______ by contemporaries—seized the rural poor and fanned the flames of rebellion.

answer

Great Fear

question

By a decree of the assembly, all the old noble privileges—peasant serfdom where it still existed, exclusive hunting rights, fees for having legal cases judged in the lord's court, the right to make peasants work on the roads, and a host of other dues—were

answer

abolished along with the tithes paid to the church.

question

On August 27,1789, the National Assembly issued the

answer

Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.

question

Why did the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen guarantee?

answer

This clarion call of the liberal revolutionary ideal guaranteed equality before the law, representative government for a sovereign people, and individual freedom. This revolutionary credo, only two pages long, was disseminated throughout France, the rest of Europe, and around the world.

question

The National Assembly's declaration had little practical effect for the

answer

Poor and hungry people of Paris

question

The economic crisis worsened after the fall of the Bastille, as aristocrats fled the country and the __________ collapsed.

answer

luxury market

question

Foreign markets also shrank, and unemployment among the ________________ grew.

answer

urban working class

question

In addition, women—the traditional managers of food and resources in poor homes—could no longer look to the church, which had been stripped of its tithes, for

answer

Aid

question

On October 5 some seven thousand women marched the twelve miles from ______ to ________ to demand action.

answer

Paris, Versailles

question

The women invaded the royal apartments, killed some of the royal bodyguards, and searched for the queen, ___________, who was widely despised for her frivolous and supposedly immoral behavior.

answer

Marie Antoinette,

question

It seems likely that only the intervention of ________ and the National Guard saved the royal family.

answer

Lafayette

question

But the only way to calm the disorder was for the king to live closer to his people in _____, as the crowd demanded.

answer

Paris

question

In June 1790 the National Assembly abolished the nobility and in July the king swore to uphold the as-yet-unwritten constitution, effectively enshrining a ______________.

answer

constitutional monarchy

question

The king remained the head of state, but all law-making power now resided in the _______, elected by the wealthiest half of French males.

answer

National Assembly

question

The constitution finally passed in September 1791 and, reluctantly recognized by Louis XVI, was the first in French history. It broadened women's rights to

answer

seek divorce, to inherit property, and to obtain financial support for illegitimate children from fathers, but excluded women from political office and voting.

question

This decision was attacked by a small number of men and women who believed that the rights of man should be extended to all __________.

answer

French citizens

question

Olympe de Gouges (1748-1793), a self-taught writer and woman of the people, protested the

answer

evils of slavery as well as the injustices done to women. In September 1791 she published her "Declaration of the Rights of Woman."

question

In addition to ruling on women's rights, the National Assembly replaced the complicated patchwork of historic provinces with __________________________, a move toward more rational and systematic methods of administration.

answer

eighty-three departments of approximately equal size

question

What was abolished in the name of economic liberty?

answer

Monopolies, guilds, and workers' associations were prohibited, and barriers to trade within France

question

Thus the National Assembly applied the spirit of the _______________ in a thorough reform of France's laws and institutions.

answer

Enlightenment

question

The National Assembly granted religious freedom to the small minority of French _____________.

answer

Jews and Protestants

question

Furthermore, in November 1789 The National Assembly nationalized the Catholic Church's property and abolished __________.

answer

monasteries

question

The government used all former church property as collateral to guarantee a new paper currency, ____________, and then sold the property in an attempt to put the state's finances on a solid footing.

answer

the assignats

question

in July 1790, with the Civil Constitution of the Clergy, they established a national church with priests chosen by _______.

answer

voters

question

The National Assembly then forced the Catholic clergy to take an oath of ______ to the new government.

answer

loyalty

question

The pope formally condemned this attempt to subjugate the church, and only ______ the priests of France swore the oath

answer

half

question

The attempt to remake the Catholic Church, like the abolition of guilds and workers' associations, sharpened the conflict between the _______________that had been emerging in the eighteenth century.

answer

educated classes and the common people

question

Maximilien Robespierre (1758-1794) concluded that

answer

"The Revolution is over."

question

On the one hand, liberals and radicals saw a mighty triumph of liberty over despotism. On the other hand, conservative leaders such as British statesman Edmund Burke (1729-1797) were troubled by the aroused spirit of _______.

answer

reform

question

In 1790 Burke published Reflections on the Revolution in France, in which he defended inherited privileges. He glorified Britain's unrepresentative Parliament and predicted that reform like that occurring in France would lead only to ________________.

answer

chaos and tyranny

question

Mary Wollstonecraft's book became a founding text of the ____________.

answer

feminist movement

question

In June 1791 Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette were arrested and returned to Paris after trying unsuccessfully to slip out of France.

answer

slip out of France.

question

To supporters of the revolution, the attempted flight was proof that the king was treacherously seeking foreign support for an

answer

invasion of France

question

To the monarchs of Austria and Prussia, the arrest of a crowned monarch was unacceptable. Two months later they issued the ________________, which professed their willingness to intervene in France to restore Louis XVI's rule if necessary.

answer

Declaration of Pillnitz

question

The new French representative body, called the ________________, that convened in October 1791 had completely new delegates and a different character.

answer

Legislative Assembly

question

Many of the delegates belonged to the ___________.

answer

Jacobin Club

question

The Jacobins and other deputies reacted with patriotic fury to the Declaration of Pillnitz. In April 1792 France declared war on

answer

Francis II, the Habsburg monarch

question

Prussian forces joined Austria against the French, who broke and _______ at their first military encounter with this First Coalition of the foreign powers united against the revolution.

answer

fled

question

The Legislative Assembly declared the country in danger, and volunteers rallied to the ______.

answer

capital

question

In this wartime atmosphere, rumors of treason by the king and queen spread in Paris. On August 10, 1792, a revolutionary crowd attacked the royal palace at the _____________, while the king and his family fled for their lives to the nearby Legislative Assembly.

answer

Tuileries

question

Rather than offering refuge, the Assembly suspended the king from all his functions, imprisoned him, and called for a legislative and constitutional assembly to be elected by ______________].

answer

universal male suffrage

question

The fall of the monarchy marked a rapid radicalization of the revolution, a phase that historians often call the

answer

Second revolution

question

In late September 1792 the new, popularly elected National Convention, which replaced the Legislative Assembly, proclaimed France a __________, a nation in which the people, instead of a monarch, held sovereign power.

answer

republic

question

All the members of the National Convention were republicans, and at the beginning almost all belonged to the Jacobin club of Paris. But the Jacobins themselves were increasingly divided into two bitterly opposed groups—___________ and the ________, led by Robespierre and another young lawyer, Georges Jacques Danton.

answer

Girondists, Mountain

question

This division emerged clearly after the National Convention overwhelmingly convicted Louis XVI of treason. The Girondists accepted his guilt but did not wish to put the king to death. By a narrow majority, the Mountain carried the day, and Louis was executed on January 21, 1793, by ________, which the French had recently perfected.

answer

guillotine

question

But both the Girondists and the Mountain were determined to continue the

answer

"war against tyranny."

question

The Prussians had been stopped at the ______________ on September 20, 1792, one day before the republic was proclaimed. French armies then invaded Savoy and captured Nice, moved into the German Rhineland, and by November 1792 were occupying the entire Austrian Netherlands

answer

Battle of Valmy

question

Everywhere they went, French armies of occupation

answer

chased princes, abolished feudalism, and found support among some peasants and middleclass people. But French armies also lived off the land, requisitioning food and supplies and plundering local treasures.

question

In February 1793 the National Convention, at war with Austria and Prussia, declared war on

answer

Britain, Holland, and Spain as well.

question

Peasants in western France revolted against being drafted into the ______, with the Vendée region of Brittany emerging as the epicenter of revolt. Devout Catholics, royalists, and foreign agents encouraged their rebellion, and the counter-revolutionaries recruited veritable armies to fight for their cause.

answer

army

question

In March 1793 the National Convention was locked in a life-and-death political struggle between members of the Mountain and the more moderate Girondists. With the middle-class delegates so bitterly divided, the __________ of Paris once again emerged as the decisive political factor.

answer

laboring poor

question

The laboring poor and the petty traders were often known as the _________ ("without breeches") because their men wore trousers instead of the knee breeches of the aristocracy and the solid middle class.

answer

sans-culottes

question

The Mountain, sensing an opportunity to out-maneuver the Girondists, joined with sans-culottes activists to engineer a popular ________.

answer

uprising

question

On June 2, 1793, armed sans-culottes invaded the Convention and forced its deputies to arrest twenty-nine Girondist deputies for treason. All power passed to the ________.

answer

Mountain

question

The Convention also formed the Committee of Public Safety in April 1793 to deal with

answer

the threats from within and outside France.

question

The committee, which __________ led, held dictatorial power to deal with the national emergency, allowing it to use whatever force necessary to defend the Revolution.

answer

Robespierre

question

Moderates in leading provincial cities revolted against the committee's power and demanded a __________ government.

answer

Moderates in leading provincial cities revolted against the committee's power and demanded a decentralized government.

question

Counter-revolutionary forces in the Vendée won significant victories, and the republic's armies were driven back on all fronts. By July 1793 only the areas around Paris and on the eastern frontier were firmly held by the ___________.

answer

central government

question

A year later, in July 1794, the central government had reasserted control over the provinces, and the _________________________ were once again in French hands.

answer

Austrian Netherlands and the Rhineland

question

This remarkable change of fortune was due to the revolutionary government's success in harnessing the

answer

explosive forces of a planned economy, revolutionary terror, and modern nationalism in a total war effort.

question

Robespierre and the Committee of Public Safety advanced on several fronts in 1793 and 1794, seeking to impose ___________________ across the nation.

answer

republican unity

question

First, they collaborated with the ___________, who continued pressing the common people's case for fair prices and a moral economic order and who distrusted most wealthy capitalists and all aristocrats.

answer

sans-culottes

question

Rather than let supply and demand determine prices, the government set _______________ prices for key products.

answer

maximum allowable

question

The people were also put to work, mainly producing arms and munitions for the war effort. Through these economic reforms the second revolution produced an emergency form of __________, which thoroughly frightened Europe's propertied classes and greatly influenced the subsequent development of socialist ideology.

answer

socialism

question

Second, while radical economic measures supplied the poor with bread and the armies with weapons, the __________________ enforced compliance with republican beliefs and practices.

answer

Reign of Terror

question

Special revolutionary courts responsible only to Robespierre's Committee of Public Safety tried "enemies of the nation" for political crimes. As a result, some __________ French men and women were executed or died in prison.

answer

forty thousand

question

In their efforts to impose unity, the Jacobins took actions to suppress women's participation in ___________, which they perceived as disorderly and a distraction from women's proper place in the home.

answer

political debate

question

Beyond imposing political unity by force, the Terror also sought to bring the revolution into all aspects of ____________.

answer

everyday life

question

Moreover, the government attempted to rationalize French daily life by adopting the decimal system for weights and measures and a new calendar based on ten-day weeks.

answer

the decimal system for weights and measures and a new calendar based on ten-day weeks.

question

Another important element of this cultural revolution was the campaign of de-Christianization, which aimed to eliminate

answer

Catholic symbols and beliefs.

question

The third and perhaps most decisive element in the French republic's victory over the First Coalition was its ability to draw on the power of

answer

patriotic dedication to a national state and a national mission.

question

With a common language and a common tradition newly reinforced by the ideas of popular sovereignty and democracy, large numbers of French people were stirred by a

answer

common loyalty. They developed an intense emotional commitment to the defense of the nation, and they saw the war against foreign opponents as a life-and-death struggle between good and evil.

question

After August 1793 all unmarried young men were subject to the draft, and by January 1794 French armed forces outnumbered those of their enemies almost _______.

answer

four to one

question

By spring 1794 French armies were victorious on all fronts. The republic was ______.

answer

saved

question

In March 1794 Robespierre's Terror wiped out many of his critics. Two weeks later Robespierre sent long-standing collaborators whom he believed had turned against him, including Danton, to the ________.

answer

guillotine

question

A group of radicals and moderates in the Convention, knowing that they might be next, organized a _________. They howled down Robespierre when he tried to speak to the National Convention on July 27,1794—a date known as 9 Thermidor according to France's newly adopted republican calendar. The next day it was Robespierre's turn to be guillotined.

answer

conspiracy

question

As Robespierre's closest supporters followed their leader to the guillotine, the respectable middle-class lawyers and professionals who had led the liberal revolution of 1789 reasserted their ________.

answer

authority

question

This period of Thermidorian reaction, as it was called, harkened back to the beginnings of the Revolution, rejecting the ___________________ in favor of moderate policies that favored property owners.

answer

radicalism of the sans-culottes

question

In 1795 the National Convention abolished

answer

many economic controls, let prices rise sharply, and severely restricted the local political organizations through which the sans-culottes exerted their strength.

question

After the Convention used the army to suppress the sans-culottes' protests, the urban poor lost their __________________.

answer

revolutionary fervor

question

In 1795 the middle-class members of the National Convention wrote yet another constitution to guarantee their

answer

economic position and political supremacy

question

As in previous elections, the mass of the population voted only for ______, whose number was cut back to men of substantial means.

answer

electors

question

Electors then voted for members of a reorganized ________________to replace the National Convention and for key officials throughout France.

answer

Legislative Assembly

question

The new assembly also chose a five-man executive body called the ______.

answer

Directory

question

This general dissatisfaction revealed itself clearly in the national elections of 1797, which returned a large number of conservative and even monarchist deputies who favored _____ at almost any price.

answer

peace

question

The members of the Directory, fearing for their skins, used the army to nullify the elections and began to govern _______.

answer

dictatorially

question

Two years later Napoleon Bonaparte ended the Directory in a ___________and substituted a strong dictatorship for a weak one.

answer

coup d'état

question

Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821) realized the need to put an end to _________ in France in order to create unity and consolidate his rule.

answer

civil strife

question

Describe Napolean Bonaparte.

answer

Born on the Mediterranean island of Corsica into an impoverished noble family, Napoleon left home and became a lieutenant in the French artillery in 1785. After a brief and unsuccessful adventure fighting for Corsican independence in 1789, he returned to France as a French patriot and a revolutionary. Rising rapidly in the new army, Napoleon was placed in command of French forces in Italy and won brilliant victories there in 1796 and 1797. His next campaign, in Egypt, was a failure, but Napoleon returned to France before the fiasco was generally known, and his reputation remained intact.

question

Napoleon soon learned that some prominent members of the legislature were plotting against the ________.

answer

Directory. The dissatisfaction of these plotters stemmed not so much from the fact that the Directory was a dictatorship as from the fact that it was a weak dictatorship.

question

The flamboyant thirty-year-old Napoleon, nationally revered for his heroism, was an ideal choice for the strong ruler the conspirators were seeking. Thus they and Napoleon organized a ________.

answer

takeover

question

On November 9, 1799, they ousted the Directors, and the following day soldiers disbanded the legislature. Napoleon was named _____________, and a new constitution consolidating his position was overwhelmingly approved in a plebiscite in December 1799.

answer

first consul of the republic

question

The essence of Napoleon's domestic policy was to use his popularity and charisma to maintain order and end civil strife. He did so by working out

answer

unwritten agreements with powerful groups in France whereby the groups received favors in return for loyal service.

question

Napoleon's bargain with the middle class was codified in the famous Civil Code of March 1804, also known as ______________.

answer

the Napoleonic Code

question

The Napoleonic code reasserted two of the fundamental principles of the revolution of 1789:

answer

equality of all male citizens before the law and absolute security of wealth and private property.

question

At the same time, Napoleon built on the _________ inherited from the Revolution and the former monarchy to create a thoroughly centralized state.

answer

bureaucracy

question

Napoleon consolidated his rule by

answer

recruiting disillusioned revolutionaries for the network of government officials; they depended on him and came to serve him well.

question

In 1800 and again in 1802 Napoleon granted _______ to one hundred thousand noble émigrés on the condition that they return to France and take a loyalty oath. Members of this returning elite soon ably occupied many high posts in the expanding centralized state.

answer

amnesty

question

Furthermore, Napoleon applied his diplomatic skills to healing the Catholic Church in France so that it could serve as a bulwark of ________.

answer

social stability

question

Napoleon and Pope Pius VII (pontificate 1800-1823) signed the ______________. Under this agreement the pope gained the right for French Catholics to practice their religion freely, but Napoleon gained political power: his government now nominated bishops, paid the clergy, and exerted great influence over the church in France.

answer

Concordat of 1801

question

The ______________ of Napoleon's early years were his greatest achievement, and much of his legal and administrative reorganization has survived in France to this day.

answer

domestic reforms

question

More generally, Napoleon's domestic initiatives gave the great majority of French people a sense of _______ and __________.

answer

stability, national unity

question

Under the new Napoleonic Code, women were regarded as _________ of either their fathers or their husbands, and they could not make contracts or have bank accounts in their own names.

answer

dependents

question

Napoleon aimed at re-establishing a ______________, where the power of the husband and father was as absolute over the wife and the children as that of Napoleon over his subjects.

answer

family monarchy

question

In other restrictions, _____________________ were curtailed, and the occasional elections were thoroughly controlled by Napoleon and his government.

answer

free speech and freedom of the press

question

After coming to power in 1799 Napoleon sent peace feelers to ______ and _________, the two remaining members of the Second Coalition that had been formed against France in 1798.

answer

Austria and Britain

question

When these overtures were rejected, French armies led by Napoleon decisively defeated the Austrians. In the ____________________ b, Austria accepted the loss of almost all its Italian possessions, and German territory on the west bank of the Rhine was incorporated into France.

answer

Treaty of Lunéville (1801)

question

The British agreed to the ____________________, allowing France to remain in control of Holland, the Austrian Netherlands, the west bank of the Rhine, and most of the Italian peninsula.

answer

Treaty of Amiens in 1802

question

Aggressively redrawing the map of Germany so as to weaken Austria and encourage the secondary states of southwestern Germany to side with France, Napoleon tried to restrict ___________ with all of Europe.

answer

British trade

question

He then plotted to attack Britain, but his Mediterranean fleet was destroyed by Lord Nelson at the Battle of ________ on October 21, 1805.

answer

Trafalgar

question

Renewed fighting had its advantages, however, for the first consul used his high status as a military leader to have himself proclaimed ________ in late 1804.

answer

emperor

question

Austria, Russia, and Sweden joined with Britain to form the _____________ against France shortly before the Battle of Trafalgar.

answer

Third Coalition

question

Yet the Austrians and the Russians were no match for Napoleon, who scored a brilliant victory over them at the Battle of ________ in December 1805.

answer

Austerlitz

question

Russia decided to pull back, and Austria accepted large territorial losses in return for peace as the Third Coalition ________.

answer

collapsed

question

Napoleon then reorganized the German states to his liking. In 1806 he abolished many tiny German states as well as the __________________ and established by decree the German Confederation of the Rhine

answer

Holy Roman Empire

question

What was the German Confederation of the Rhine?

answer

a union of fifteen German states minus Austria, Prussia, and Saxony. Naming himself "protector" of the confederation, Napoleon firmly controlled western Germany.

question

Napoleon's intervention in German affairs alarmed the Prussians, who mobilized their armies. In October 1806 Napoleon attacked them and won two more brilliant victories at Jena and Auerstädt, where the Prussians were outnumbered _____ to ___.

answer

2 to 1

question

In the treaties of ____in 1807, Prussia lost half of its population through land concessions, while Russia accepted Napoleon's reorganization of western and central Europe and promised to enforce Napoleon's economic blockade against British goods.

answer

Tilsit

question

What was the first part of Napoleans Grand Empire?

answer

The core, or first part, was an ever-expanding France, which by 1810 included Belgium, Holland, parts of northern Italy, and much German territory on the east bank of the Rhine

question

What was the second part of Napoleans Grand Empire?

answer

The second part consisted of a number of dependent satellite kingdoms.

question

What was the third part of Napoleans Grand Empire?

answer

The third part comprised the independent but allied states of Austria, Prussia, and Russia.

question

After 1806 both satellites and allies were expected to support Napoleon's __________________, a blockade in which no ship coming from Britain or her colonies was permitted to dock at any port that was controlled by the French.

answer

Continental System

question

The blockade was intended to

answer

halt all trade between Britain and continental Europe, thereby destroying the British economy and its military force.

question

In the areas incorporated into France and in the satellites, Napoleon abolished _________ and ________.

answer

feudal dues, serfdom

question

Levying heavy taxes in money and men for his armies, Napoleon came to be regarded more as a conquering ______ than as an enlightened liberator.

answer

tyrant

question

Thus French rule sparked patriotic upheavals and encouraged the growth of reactive __________.

answer

nationalism

question

In 1808 a coalition of Catholics, monarchists, and patriots rebelled against Napoleon's attempts to make Spain a French ________. French armies occupied Madrid, but the foes of Napoleon fled to the hills and waged uncompromising guerrilla warfare. Events in Spain sent a clear warning: resistance to French imperialism was growing.

answer

satellite

question

The Continental System was a failure. Instead of harming Britain, the system provoked this foe to set up a ____________, which created hard times for French artisans and the middle class.

answer

counter-blockade

question

Perhaps looking for a scapegoat, Napoleon turned on Alexander I of Russia, who in 1811 openly ________ Napoleon's war of prohibitions against British goods.

answer

repudiated

question

Napoleon's invasion of Russia began in June 1812. Originally, he planned to winter in the Russian city of Smolensk if Alexander did not sue for peace. However, after reaching Smolensk Napoleon recklessly pressed on toward ________.

answer

Moscow

question

The Battle of ________ that followed was a draw, and the Russians retreated in good order. Alexander ordered the evacuation of Moscow, which the Russians then burned in part, and he refused to negotiate.

answer

Borodino

question

Finally, after five weeks in the scorched and abandoned city, Napoleon ordered a disastrous retreat. The Russian army, the Russian winter, and starvation cut Napoleon's army to ______.

answer

pieces

question

Leaving his troops to their fate, Napoleon raced to Paris to raise another army. Possibly he might still have saved his throne if he had been willing to accept a France reduced to its historical size—the proposal offered by Austria's foreign minister, _______________. But Napoleon refused.

answer

Prince Klemens von Metternich

question

Consequently, Austria and Prussia deserted Napoleon and joined Russia and Britain in the Treaty of _________ in March 1814, by which the four powers pledged allegiance to defeat the French emperor.

answer

Chaumont

question

All across Europe patriots called for a "war of ________" against Napoleon's oppression. Less than a month later, on April 4, 1814, a defeated Napoleon abdicated his throne.

answer

liberation

question

After this unconditional abdication, the victorious allies granted Napoleon the island of ___ off the coast of Italy as his own tiny state.

answer

Elba

question

The allies also agreed to the restoration of the _______ dynasty under Louis XVIII (r. 1814-1824) and promised to treat France with leniency in a peace settlement.

answer

Bourbon

question

The new monarch tried to consolidate support among the people by issuing the ___________________, which accepted many of France's revolutionary changes and guaranteed civil liberties.

answer

Constitutional Charter

question

Hearing of political unrest in France and diplomatic tensions in Vienna, Napoleon staged a daring escape from ____ in February 1815.

answer

Elba

question

Landing in France, he issued appeals for support and marched on Paris. French officers and soldiers who had fought so long for their emperor responded to the call. Louis XVIII fled, and once more Napoleon took __________. But Napoleon's gamble was a desperate long shot, for the allies were united against him.

answer

command

question

At the end of a frantic period known as the ________________, they crushed his forces at Waterloo on June 18,1815, and imprisoned him on the island of St. Helena, off the western coast of Africa.

answer

Hundred Days

question

As for Napoleon, he took revenge by writing his ________, nurturing the myth that he had been Europe's revolutionary liberator, a hero whose work had been undone by oppressive reactionaries.

answer

memoirs

question

The colony, which occupied the western third of the island of Hispaniola, was inhabited by a variety of social groups who resented and mistrusted one another. The European population included

answer

French colonial officials, wealthy plantation owners and merchants, and poor immigrants.

question

Vastly outnumbering the white population were the colony's five hundred thousand _____, along with a sizable population of free people of African and mixed African and European descent. Members of this last group referred to themselves as "free coloreds" or free people of color.

answer

slaves

question

The 1685 Code Noir (Black Code) that set the parameters of slavery had granted free people of color

answer

the same legal status as whites: they could own property, live where they wished, and pursue any education or career they desired.

question

From the 1760s on, however, colonial administrators began rescinding these rights, and by the time of the French Revolution, myriad aspects of free coloreds' lives were ruled by ____________________.

answer

discriminatory laws

question

For slaves, who constituted approximately 90 percent of the population, news of abolitionist movements in France led to hopes that the

answer

mother country might grant them freedom

question

Free people of color looked to reforms in Paris as a means of gaining

answer

political enfranchisement and reasserting equal status with whites.

question

The white elite, not surprisingly, saw matters very differently. Infuriated by talk of abolition and determined to protect their way of life, they looked to

answer

revolutionary ideals of representative government for the chance to gain control of their own affairs, as had the American colonists before them.

question

The National Assembly frustrated the hopes of all these groups. Cowed by colonial representatives who claimed that support for free people of color would result in slave insurrection and independence, the Assembly refused to extend French constitutional safeguards to the ________.

answer

colonies

question

After dealing this blow to the aspirations of slaves and free coloreds, the committee also reaffirmed ______________________________, thereby angering planters as well. Like the American settlers before them, the colonists chafed under the rule of the mother country.

answer

French monopolies over colonial trade

question

In July 1790 Vincent Ogé (aw-ZHAY; ca. 1750-1791), a free man of color, returned to Saint-Domingue from Paris determined to win rights for his people. He raised an army of several hundred and sent letters to the new ______________ of Saint-Domingue demanding political rights for all free citizens.

answer

Provincial Assembly

question

But Ogé's demands were refused, so he and his followers turned to ______________. After initial victories, his army was defeated, and Ogé was tortured and executed by colonial officials.

answer

armed insurrection

question

Revolutionary leaders in Paris were more sympathetic to Ogé's cause. In May 1791, responding to what it perceived as partly justified grievances, the National Assembly granted

answer

political rights to free people of color born to two free parents who possessed sufficient property.

question

When news of this legislation arrived in Saint-Domingue, the white elite was furious, and the colonial governor refused to ______ it. Violence now erupted between groups of whites and free coloreds in parts of the colony.

answer

enact

question

Revolts began on a few plantations on the night of August 22. Within a few days the uprising had swept much of the northern plain, creating a slave army estimated at around ______ individuals.

answer

2,000

question

By August 27 it was described by one observer as "_______ strong, divided into 3 armies, of whom 700 or 800 are on horseback, and tolerably well-armed."6 During the next month slaves attacked and destroyed hundreds of sugar and coffee plantations.

answer

10,000

question

On April 4, 1792, as war loomed with the European states, the National Assembly issued a decree extending

answer

full citizenship rights, including the right to vote, to free blacks and free people of color.

question

As in France, voting rights and the ability to hold public office applied to ___ only. The Assembly hoped this measure would win the loyalty of free blacks and their aid in defeating the slave rebellion.

answer

men

question

Since the beginning of the slave insurrection, the Spanish colony of Santo Domingo, just to the east of Saint-Domingue, had ________ rebel slaves. In early 1793 the Spanish began to bring slave leaders and their soldiers into the Spanish army.

answer

Supported

question

Toussaint L'Ouverture (TOO-sahn LOO-vair-toor; 1743-1803), a freed slave who had joined the revolt, was named a Spanish ______.

answer

officer

question

In September the British navy blockaded the colony, and invading British troops captured French territory on the island. For the Spanish and British, revolutionary chaos provided a tempting opportunity to _______ a profitable colony.

answer

capture

question

Desperate for forces to oppose France's enemies, commissioners sent by the newly elected National Convention promised ______ to slaves who fought for France.

answer

freedom

question

By October 1793 they had abolished slavery throughout the colony. On February 4, 1794, the Convention ratified the abolition of slavery and extended it to all French territories, including the Caribbean colonies of _______ and _______.

answer

Martinique, Guadeloupe

question

The tide of battle began to turn when Toussaint L'Ouverture switched sides, bringing his military and political skills, along with four thousand well-trained soldiers, to support the _______ war effort.

answer

French

question

By 1796 the French had regained _____ of the colony, and L'Ouverture had emerged as the key leader of the combined slave and free colored forces

answer

control

question

In May 1796 he was named commander of the ______ province of Saint-Domingue

answer

western

question

With Toussaint L'Ouverture acting increasingly as an independent ruler of the western province of Saint-Domingue, another general, André Rigaud (1761-1811), set up his own government in the __________ peninsula.

answer

southern

question

Tensions mounted between L'Ouverture and Rigaud. While L'Ouverture was a freed slave of African descent, Rigaud belonged to the _____________.

answer

free colored elite

question

Civil war broke out between the two sides in 1799, when L'Ouverture's forces, led by his lieutenant, Jean Jacques Dessalines (1758-1806), invaded the south. Victory over Rigaud in 1800 gave L'Ouverture control of the ______ colony.

answer

entire

question

This victory was soon challenged by Napoleon, who had his own plans for re-establishing _____ and using the profits as a basis for expanding French power.

answer

slavery

question

Napoleon ordered his brother-in-law, General Charles-Victor-Emmanuel Leclerc (1772-1802), to lead an expedition to the island to crush the new _______.

answer

regime

question

In 1802 Leclerc landed in Saint-Domingue and ordered the ________ of Toussaint L'Ouverture. The rebel leader was deported to France, along with his family, where he died in 1803.

answer

arrest

question

It was left to L'Ouverture's lieutenant, ____________________, to unite the resistance, and he led it to a crushing victory over French forces.

answer

Jean Jacques Dessalines

question

On January 1, 1804, Dessalines formally declared the ________________ of Saint-Domingue and the creation of the new sovereign nation of Haiti, the name used by the pre-Columbian inhabitants of the island.

answer

independence

question

Haiti, the ______ independent state in the Americas and the _____ in Latin America, was born from the first successful large-scale slave revolt in history.

answer

Second, first

question

Fearing the spread of slave rebellion to the United States, President Thomas Jefferson refused to recognize _____.

answer

Haiti

question

Yet Haitian independence had fundamental repercussions for world history, helping spread the idea that

answer

liberty, equality, and fraternity must apply to all people

Chapter 22 History – Flashcards

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