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Genome

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the composlte set of genetic information ina cell organism, or virus

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Biomass

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the total weight of living organisms within a defined environment

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Microbiology

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the science that embraces a biological diverse group of usually small life forms, encompassing primarily microorganisms and viruses

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Microorganisms

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bacteria, fungi, algae, and protozoa

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Microbiota

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the population of microorganisms that colonize various parts of the human body and do not cause disease in a healthy individual

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Pathogen

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disease causing agents

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Convex

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referring to the surface that curves outward

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Zacharias Janssen

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Dutch spectacle maker in 17th century, discovered that two convex lenses put together would make small objects look larger

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Francesco Stelluti or Francesco Faber

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this new invention as
“microscopio” or “microscope” was created in 1625 by

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Robert Hook

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the first to use the microscope and make observations. In 1665, the Royal Society published his micrographia which included descriptions of microscopes and hand drawn illustrations of what he saw. He used anatomy of insects and structure of cork to make his discovery of cella or “cells” because they looked like a bunch of boxes. His book was influential in inspiring others to make their own observations

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Atony van Leeuwenhoek

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tradesman in Holland, uses hand lenses to inspect the quality of the cloth he was purchasing and eventually became a skilled lens grinder and created the “simple microscope”
-in 1674, he took a sample from cloudy marsh water and a sample from his mouth, and found what he called “animalcules” swimming

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Spontaneous Generation

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the doctrine that nonliving matter could spontaneously give rise to living things
-common people believed that decomposing wheat grains could generate wormlike maggots and slime produced toads

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Francesco Redi

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performed the first controlled biological experiment to see if maggots could arise from rotting meat. In 1668, he covered some jars of rotting meat with paper or gauze, thereby preventing the flies from entering, while leaving other jars uncovered. The outcome came to be that since the flies could not lay their invisible eggs on the meat that no maggots appeared.

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Contagious

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capable of being transmitted between individuals through contact

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Miasma

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an ill-defined idea of the 1700s and 1800s that suggested diseases were caused by an altered chemical quality of the atmosphere

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Epidemiology

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the scientific study from which the source, cause, and mode of transmission of disease can be identified

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Ignaz Semmelweis

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an obstetrician who was trying to figure out why so many women were dying of child-bed fever (a type of blood poisoning) during labor. He observed the correlation between the medical students and the midwives and more women died when medical students were handling their childbirth (29%) compared to the (3%). Therefore, he realized that there must be involvement between the medical students and the fever. He soon discovered that it was coming from the medical students working on autopsies on cadavers without washing their hands before entering maternity ward. As a result, he made his staff was their hands in chlorine water before entering maternity and less women died from this change.

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John Snow

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wanted to find out why there was such a outbreak of Cholera in the streets of London in 1854, so he interviewed both sick and healthy people and plotted their locations on a map and he saw the correlation that the sick people lived near a sewage contaminated water pump where the locals received their water. He requested that the pump be removed and after that the spread of the disease was over.

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Variolation

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a 14th – 18th century method to inoculate a susceptible person with material from a smallpox vesicle to render that person resistant to infection

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Vaccination

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inoculation with weakened or dead microbes or viruses in order to generate immunity

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Edward Jenner

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an English surgeon, learned that those who had cowpox were also protected from smallpox, so in 1976 he infected a boy with cowpox. The boy got a fever but recovered. Then, he infected him with smallpox, and the boy got a reaction to it but he did not get sick. His technique soon replaced variolation

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Christian Ehrenberg

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1838, German biologist suggested to call these “rod-like” organisms bacteria

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Fermentation

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A splitting of sugar molecules into simpler products, including alcohol, acid, and gas (CO2)
e.g. yeast

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Pasteurization

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A heating process that destroys pathogenic bacteria in a fluid such as milk and lowers the overall number of bacterial cells in the fluid
-heating the wine to 55o C after fermentation but before the aging process
-process is famously applied to milk and other products

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Germs

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microorganisms that cause infectious disease

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Germ Theory

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the principle formulated by Pasteur and proved by Koch that microorganisms are responsible for infectious disease

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John Lister

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(Professor of surgery) noticed more than half his amputation patients died from postoperative infections, and with Pasteur’s germ theory, (1865) he tried using carbolic acid spray in surgery and on surgical wounds. It worked so well that revolutionized the practice of surgery and medicine

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Antisepsis

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the use of chemical methods for disinfection of external living surfaces, such as the skin

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Pasteur

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tried to isolate the cause of cholera that spread through Paris in 1865, but he was unable to pinpoint the exact cause and could not validate the germ theory. The organisms on his broth cultures were unable to be separated because they were mixed freely

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Broth

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A liquid containing nutrients for microbial growth

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Koch's Postulates

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A set of procedures by which a specific organism can be related to a specific disease

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Robert Koch

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worked with anthrax, injected mice with blood from infected sheep or cattle, then he did autopsies and noticed the same symptoms in all the animals, so he isolated rod-shaped bacterial cells later called Bacilli and grew them in aqueous humor of an ox’s eye, until they grew to become highly resistant spores. Then he injected these spores into healthy mice and they were soon sick with anthrax and found their blood was full of anthrax bacilli then he reisolated the bacilli in fresh aqueous humor and identified it as the causative agent.

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Agar

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A complex polysaccharide derived from marine algae

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Pure Culture

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An accumulation or colony of microorganisms of one species

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Attenuation

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Reduce or weaken bacterial cells

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Pasteur's principles used for vaccination today

answer

He did this by creating a weak strand of cholera by suspending the bacterial cells in a mildly acidic medium and allowing the culture to remain undisturbed for a long period. Then he inoculated chickens with the weakened strand and followed it later with a lethal strand and the chickens did not develop cholera. He later applied this complex to anthrax

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Bacteriology

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the study of bacterial organisms

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Virology

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the scientific study of viruses

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Martinus Beijernck

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1899 suggested that tobacco mosaic disease was a “contagious, living liquid” that acted like a poison or virus (“virus” = poison). 1898, the first “filterable virus” responsible for hoof and mouth disease

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Walter Reed

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1901 found the agent responsible for yellow fever is filterable

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Sergei Winogradsky

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discovered bacterial cells that metabolized sulfur and developed nitrogen fixation. He was able to obtain pure cultures of microorganisms from the soil and water by enriching the growth conditions

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Mycology

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the study of fungi

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Protozoology

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the study of protozoa

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Phycology

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the study of algae

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Immunology

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the study of bodily defenses against microorganisms and other agents

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Bacteria

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very small, single-celled (unicellular), organisms; cells may be spherical, spiral, or rod-shaped, and they lack the cell nucleus and most of the typical compartments typical of other microbes and mulitcellular organisms

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Cyanobacteria

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a bacterial species that carries out photosynthesis

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Decomposers

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organisms that recycle nutrients from dead organisms

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Archaea

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Can be found in environments that are extremely hot, extremely salty, or in areas of extremely low pH; most absorb food from their environment

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Viruses

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non cellular and cannot be grown in a pure culture; the core is nucleic acid (DNA or RNA) surrounded by a protein coat; identifying morphology (size, shape), genetic material (RNA, DNA), and biological properties (organisms or tissue infected)
-they infect organisms in order to replicate since they need the metabolic machinery inside a cell

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Fungi

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includes unicellular yeasts and multicellular molds and mushrooms; they grow best in warm, moist places and secrete digestive enzymes that break down nutrients into smaller bits that can be absorbed easily
-they are used as antibodics, in foods as distinctive flavors, and when paired with bacteria molds are decomposers

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Protista

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-consist of single-celled protozoa and algae; some are free living while others are associated with plants or animals, locomotion is achieved by flagella or cilia or by a crawling movement
-some absorb nutrients from surrounding environment or ingest algae and bacterial cells; unicellular, colonial, or filamentous algae carry out photosynthesis; They are helpful to lower levels of the food chain because they provide food for them while others can cause disease

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Salvador Luria and Max Dulbruck

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used Escherichia coli and they showed that bacterial cells could develop spontaneous mutations that generate resistance to viral infection

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Mutation

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Permanent alterations in DNA base sequences

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Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod, and maclyn McCarty

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1944 worked with Streptococcus pneumoniae and suggested that DNA is the genetic material in cells

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Eukaryotic

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referring to a cell or organisms containing a cell nucleus with multiple chromosomes, a nuclear envelope, and membrane-bound compartments
-includes all plants and animals, and fungi and protista

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Prokaryotic

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referring to cells or organisms having a single chromosome but no cell nucleus or other membrane-bound compartments
-includes bacterial and archaeal cells
-the DNA chromosome is not surrounded

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Chemotherapy

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the use of antimicrobial chemicals to kill microbes

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Antibiotic

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antimicrobial substances naturally produced by mold and bacterial species that inhibit growth or kill other microorganisms (i.e. Streptomycin is an antibiotic for TB)

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Biotechnology

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the commercial application of genetic engineering using living organisms

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Polymicrobial Diseases

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A disorder caused by more than one infectious agent

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Emerging Infectious Disease

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A new disease or changing disease that is seen for the first time (i.e. AIDS, Lyme disease, mad cow disease, SARS, swine flu)
-there are no cure for these diseases

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Reemerging Infectious Disease

answer

a disease showing a resurgence in incidence or a spread in its geographical area (i.e. cholera, TB, dengue fever, West Nile virus)
-causes for this include antibiotic resistance, or population of susceptible individuals, climate changes such as more moderate temperatures advancing to the northern and southern latitudes

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Bioterrorism

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the intentional or threatened use of biological agents to cause fear in or actually inflict death or disease upon a large population (i.e. anthrax, smallpox, plague)
-detection of bioterror agents, measures to protect to public, and develop new and effective treatments for individuals or whole populations is a challenge to biologists

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Biofilm

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A complex community of microorganisms that form a protective and adhesive matrix that attaches to a surface, such as a catheter or industrial pipeline
-it is difficult to treat when they cause infectious disease

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Bioremediation

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the use of microorganisms to remove or decontaminate toxic materials in the environment

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Postulate 1

answer

The same microorganisms are prsent in every case of the disease

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Postulate 2

answer

The microorganisms are isolated from the tissues of a dead animal, and a pure culture is prepared

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Postulate 3

answer

Microorganisms from the pure culture are inoculated into a healthy, susceptible animal. The disease is reproduced

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Postulate 4

answer

The identical microorganisms are isolated and recultivated from the tissue specimens of the experimental animal

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Jacob Henle

answer

1840 implicated bacteria in disease causation

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Filippo Pacini

answer

1854 discovered rod-shaped cholera bacteria in stool samples from cholera patients

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Pasteur

answer

used attentuated bacteria cells in cholera and anthrax innoculations

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Roux and Yersin

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linked diphtheria toxin to bacterial cells

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von Behring

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treated diphtheria with an antitoxin

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Pasteur

answer

developed a sucessful rabies vaccine

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Koch

answer

isolated the tubercule bacillus and said that water is the key to tuberculosis transmission

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George Beadle and Edward Tatum

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demonstrated that one gene codes for one enzyme

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Paul Erlich

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1910 developed Salvarsan, a chemical that cured individuals of syphilis

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Alexander Fleming

answer

1929 observed that a species of Penicillium mold killed bacterial cells, leading to the development of pencillin

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