Ch. 2 – Models of Abnormal Psychology & Ch. 3 – Models of Abnormality – Flashcards

-In science the perspectives used to explain events are known as models or paradigms -Basic assumptions, gives order to the field under study, and sets guidelines for investigation -What investigations observe, the question they ask, the information they seek, and how they interpret this information -Aka theoretical orientation

-Adopts a medical perspective -Main focus is that psychological abnormality is an illness brought about by malfunctioning parts of the organism (typically point to problems in the brain anatomy or in the brain chemistry) -Imbalance of neurotransmitters, chemical issues within the endocrine system, genetic mutations, and viral infections can all lead to mental disorders

-Brain chemistry -Information is communicated throughout the brain in the form of electrical impulses that travel from one neuron to one or more others -An impulse is first received by a neurons dendrites, travels down the axon, and is transmitted through the nerve endings to other neurons -When an electrical impulse reaches a nerve ending, the ending is stimulated to release a chemical, called a neurotransmitter, that travels across the synaptic space to receptors on the dendrites of neighboring neurons -Studies indicate that abnormal activity in certain neurotransmitters can lead to specific mental disorders

-Dopamine: -influences movement, learning, attention, and emotions -too much dopamine activity is linked to schizophrenia, too little produces tremors and decrease mobility of Parkinson's Disease -Serotonin: -affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal -too little linked to depression, Prozac and other anti-depressant drugs raise serotonin levels -Norepinephrine: -helps control alertness and arousal -too little can depress mood

-Additionally, researchers have learned that mental disorders are sometimes related to abnormal chemical activity in the endocrine system -Endocrine glands release hormones which propel body organs into action -Abnormal secretions have been linked to psychological disorders (ex: Cortisol release is related to anxiety and mood disorder)

-Abnormalities in brain memory or chemistry are sometimes the result of genetic inheritance -Each cell in the human body contains 23 pairs of of chromosomes, each with numerous genes that control the characteristics and traits a person inherits -Studies suggest that inheritance plays a part in mood disorder, schizophrenia, and other mental disorders -Appears that in most cases several genes combine to produce our actions and reactions -Amish are studied because they have a very pure gene pool and they have a low mental health illness rate BUT Bipolar is common so they can study the chromosomes to see what genes carry Bipolar disorder -Genes that contribute to mental disorders are viewed as unfortunate occurrences: -may be mutations -may be inherited after mutation in the family line -may be the result of normal evolutionary principles -Nature vs. Nurture plays a role in all of this

-Another possible source of abnormal brain structure or biochemical dysfunction is viral infections -ex: schizophrenia and prenatal viral exposure -Interest in viral explanations of psychological disorder has been growing in the past decade -ex: anxiety and mood disroders

-Biological practitioners attempt to pin point the physical source of dysfunction to determine the course of treatment -3 types of biological treatment: -drug therapy -Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) -Psychotherapy

-1950's = advent of psychotropic medications -Greatly changed the outlook for a number of mental disorders -4 major drug groups: -anti-anxiety drugs (anxiolytics; minor tranquilizers, benzodyazipin (very addictive)) -antidepressant drugs (ex: lexapro, can sometimes cause a mood disorder) -anti-bipolar drugs (mood stabilizers) -anti-psychotic drugs (helps with positive effects by stopping added behaviors, ex: stopping hallucinations in schizophrenia)

-Used primarily for depression -Particularly when drugs and other therapies have failed -Is used on 10,000 of depressed persons annually

-historical roots in trepidation -1930's = firsts lobotomy -much more precise today than in the past -considered experimental and only used in extreme cases

-Strengths: -Enjoys considerable respect in the field -Constantly produces valuable new information -Treatments bring great relief -Weaknesses: -Can limit rather than enhance understanding -Too simplistic -Treatments produce significant undesirable negative effects

-Oldest and most famous psychological model -Based on belief that a person's behavior (whether normal or abnormal) is determined largely by underlying dynamic, that is interacting, psychological forces, of which she or he is not consciously aware -Abnormal symptoms are the result of conflict among these forces -Father of psychodynamic theory and psychoanalytic therapy - Sigmund Freud (1856-1959)

-Shaped by 3 unconscious forces: -id:guided by pleasure principle -instinctual needs, drives, and impulses -sexual; fueled by libido (sexual energy) -ego: guided by reality principle -seeks gratification but guides us to know when we can and cannot express our wishes -superego: morality principle -adopt parent values and develop a conscience -These 3 parts of the personality are often in some degree of conflict -A healthy personality is one in which an effective working relationship exists among the 3 forces -If the id, ego, and superego are in excessive conflict the persons behavior may show signs of dysfunction

-Developmental stages: -Freud proposed that at each stage of development new events and pressures require adjustment in the id, ego, and superego -If successful -> personal growth -If unsuccessful -> fixation at an early developmental stage, leading to psychological abnormality, "mom's fault"

-Retains the belief that human functioning is shaped by dynamic (interacting) forces -Ego theorists: emphasize the role of the ego; consider it independent and powerful -Self theorists: emphasize the unified personality -Object relation theorists: emphasize the human need for relationships, especially between kids and caregivers

-Goal: uncover past trauma to resolve conflict -Therapist: subtle guide (asking questions, listening) -Patient experiences: -Catharsis: not just intellectual understanding but emotional -Working through: facing conflicts, reinterpreting, doing it all again -Resistance: unconscious refusal to do the work -Transference: acting towards therapists as though they are an important person in their life -Dream: translate manifest into latent content

-Short-term psychodynamic therapies: has one focus -Relational psychoanalytic therapy: more equal relationships, therapists discloses reactions (therapists go to their own therapy)

-Strengths: -First to recognize importance of psychological theories and treatment -Saw abnormal functioning as rooted in the same processes as normal functioning -First to apply theory and techniques systematically to treatment - monumental impact on the field -Weaknesses: -Unsupported ideas; difficulties to research -Non-observable -Inaccessible to human subject (unconscious)

-Like psychodynamic theorists, behavioral theorists believe that our actions are determined largely bu our experiences in life -concentrates wholly on behaviors and environmental factors -Bases explanations and treatments on principles of learning -The model began in labs where conditioning studies were studied -Several forms of conditioning: operant conditioning, modeling, and classical conditioning -All may produce normal or abnormal behavior

-Operant conditioning: humans and animals learn to behave in certain ways as a result of receiving rewards whenever they do so -Modeling: individuals learn responses by observing and repeating behavior -Classical conditioning: learning by temporal association -When 2 events repeatedly occur close together in time, they become fused in a persons mind before long the person responds in the same way to both events -Father of CC Ivan Pavlov did classical study using dogs and meat powder -Explains many familiar behaviors both normal and abnormal

-Aimed to identify the behaviors that are causing problems and replace them with more appropiate ones -May use classical conditioning, operant conditioning, or modeling -Therapists is a "teacher" rather than a healer -Classical conditioning treatments may be used to change abnormal reactions to particular stimuli (ex: systematic desensitization for phobia) -A step by step procedure -Learn relaxation skills -Construct a fear hierarchy -Confront feared situations

-Strengths: -Powerful force in the field -Can be treated in the lab -Significant research support for behavioral therapies -Weaknesses: -No evidence that symptoms are ordinarily acquired through conditioning -Behavior therapy is limited -Too simplistic -New focus on self-efficacy, social cognition, and cognitive-behavioral theories

-This model proposes that we can best understand abnormal functioning by looking at cognitive processes, the center of behaviors, thoughts, and emotions -Argues that clinicians must ask questions about assumptions, attitudes, and thoughts of a client

Thoughts Emotions Behaviors

-People can overcome their problems by developing new ways of thinking -Main model: Beck's Cognitive Therapy -The goal of therapy is to help clients recognize and restructure their thinking -Therapists also guide clients to challenge their dysfunctional thoughts, try out new interpretations, and apply new ways of thinking in their daily lives -Widely used in treating depression

-Strengths: -Very broad appeal -Short-term -Clinically useful and effective -Focuses on a uniquely human process -Theories lend themselves to research -Therapies effective in treating several disorders -Weaknesses: -Precise role of cognition in abnormality has yet to be determined -Therapies don't help everyone -Some changes may not be possible to achieve -In response a new wave of therapies has emerged, including Acceptance and Commitment Therapy and Mindfulness-based techniques

-Combination Model: -The humanist view: emphasis on people as friendly, cooperative, and constructive; focus on drive to self actualize through honest recognition of strengths and weaknesses -Existentialist View: -Emphasis on self determination, choice, and individual responsibility; focus on authenticity

-Believes in the basic human need for unconditional positive regard -If received leads to unconditional self-regard -If not leads to "conditions of worth" -Incapable of self-actualization because of distortion, don't know what they really need, etc. -Roger's "client centered" therapy -Therapists creates a supportive climate -Unconditional positive regard -Accurate empathy -Genuineness -Little research to support but positive impact on clinical practice

-Humanistic approach -Developed by Fritz Perls -Goal is to guide clients toward self recognition through challenge and frustration -Techniques: skillful frustration, role playing, rules, including "here and now" and "I" language -Little research support -"Empty chair" technique

-Psychological Dysfunction is caused by self deception -People hide from life's responsibilities and fail to recognize that it is up to them to give meaning to their lives -In therapy, people are encouraged to accept personal responsibilities for their problems -Goals: more important than technique -Great emphasis placed on client-therapist relationship -Research dehumanizes

-For most of the 20th century, clinical scientists viewed religion as a negative or at best neutral factor in mental health -This historical alienation between the clinical field and religion seems to be ending -Spiritual people are less lonely, depressed, and anxious -Less likely to commit suicide, abuse drugs, and handle stressers better

-Strengths: -Taps into domains missing from other theories -Emphasizes the individual -Optimistic -Emphasizes health -Weaknesses: -Focuses on abstract issues -Difficult to research -Weakened by disapproval of scientific approach -Changing somewhat

-Argue that abnormal behavior is best understood in light of the social and cultural forces that influence an individual -Address norms and roles in society -Comprised of two major perspectives: -Family social perspective -Multicultural perspective

-Proponents of this model argue that theorists should concentrate on forces that operate directly on an individual, including: -Social labels and roles -Diagnostic labels -Social connections and supports -Family Systems Theory: family structure communications and rules -Argues that abnormal functioning within a family leads to abnormal behavior (insane behavior becomes sane in and insane environment)

-Group therapy: formal or self help -Family therapy: family is the focus not the identified patient -Conjoint: communication -Structural: power structure and roles -Couple-therapy: CBT or integrative -Community treatment -Prevention work: -Primary: improve community attitudes -Secondary: ID psych disorders early and prevent worsening -Tertiary: prevent moderate to severe from becoming long term

-Culture refers to the set of values, attitudes, beliefs, history, and behaviors shared by a group of people and communicated from one generation to the next -Multicultural psychologists seek to understand how culture, race, ethnicity, gender and similar factors effect behavior and thought as well as people of different cultures, races, and genders differ psychologically -Unique pressures and stressors

-Studies have found that members of ethnic and racial minority groups tend to show less improvement in clinical treatment than members of majority groups -2 feature of treatment can increase therapists effectiveness with minority clients: -Greater sensitivity to cultural issues -Inclusion of cultural models and treatments, especially in therapies for kids and adolescents

-Strengths: -Added greatly to the clinical understanding and treatment of abnormality -Increased awareness of clinical and social roles -Clinically successful when other treatments have failed -Weaknesses: -Research is difficult to interpret -Correlation does not = causation -Model unable to predict abnormality in specific individuals

-Growing # of clinicians favor explanations of abnormal behavior that consider more than one cause at a time -These are sometimes called biopsychosocial theories -Abnormality results from the interaction of genetic, biological, developmental, emotional, behavioral, cognitive, social, and societal influences -Diathesis: stress approach -Predisposition -Integrative therapists are often called "eclectic", taking the strengths from each model and using them in combination