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1. Tables 2. Measures of Central Tendency 3. Correlations 4. Grids 5. Decision Matrices

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Techniques for analyzing raw data

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1. use column and rows 2. some data becomes more meaningful when cross-tabulated 3. help you compare multiple data from questionnaires and surveys

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Tables

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allows analysis of two or more variables

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Cross-tabulating data

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1. Tabulate the responses 2. Calculate total percentages 3. Round figures to once decimal whole numbers 4. Arrange items in logical order 5. Prepare title of table 6. Include the total number of respondents

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6 Tips for Converting Raw Data

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who, what, when, where and why

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The table title tells things such as

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extremes at either end cause distortion

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Disadvantage of the mean

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when extreme figures warp the mean

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When is the median useful

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its advantage is that it is easily determined useful when we're trying to determine things like group preferences

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Mode

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1. when the range of values is also known 2. it enables readers to put these figures into perspective

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When are mean, median, and mode figures are especially helpful?

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relationships among two or more variables that help explain the findings Ex: a correlation exists between years of education and starting salary

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Correlations

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1. by using cautious statements followed by explanations 2. it will gain you credibility and allow readers to make their own decisions 3. "The data suggest that beginning salaries are related to years of education"

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How to present a correlation as a possible relationship

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1. Helps split complex verbal data into concise, manageable chunks of data 2. Readers can immediately see which points are supported and which are opposed 3. Also help classify employment data

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Grids

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feasibility studies and yardstick reports that compare many variables Consumer Reports often use grids

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Arranging data in a grid also works for what?

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A special grid that helps managers make the best choice among complex options Designed to eliminate bias and poor judgement

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Decision Matrices

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1. Select the most important criteria 2. Create a matrix 3. Evaluate criteria 4. Assign relative weights 5. Multiply the scores 6. Total the scores

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6 Tips for creating a decision matrix

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1. Each conclusions relates to the initial report problem 2. many report writers explain the conclusion section by explaining each item and citing supporting evidence 3. list each item separately and use balanced sentence structure

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Analyzing Data to Arrive at Conclusions: General Info

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1. Goal is to remain objective 2. Don't manipulate findings to achieve a preconceived purpose 3. Make report more objective by using consistent evaluation criteria

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Analyzing Data to Arrive at Conclusions: Objectivity

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1. Don't sensationalize or exaggerate your findings/conclusions 2. be careful of words like "many, most, and all" 3. instead use words like "some of the respondents felt"

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What else do you need to avoid when analyzing data to arrive at a conclusion

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1. Tell how to solve problem 2. they want to know exactly how to implement suggestions 3. specificity of your recommendation depends on your authorization

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Recommendations

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your intuitions and your knowledge of the audience

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What indicates how far you should develop your recommendations

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make specific suggestions avoid conditional words present suggestions as commands number the recommendations If requested, describe how to implement recommendations when possible, arrange the recommendations in an announced order

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6 Tips for writing recommendations

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1. Time 2. Component 3. Importance 4. Criteria 5. Convention

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5 Common Methods of Organization

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1. establishing a chronology of events 2. beware of overusing as organizational method 3. tend to be boring, repetitious, and lacking in emphasis

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Time

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1. agendas 2. minutes of meetings 3. progress report 4. procedures

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What kind of things are organized by time

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components such as location, geography, division, product or part works best when classification already exists

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Component

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always keep in mind the reader's priorities and expectations busy readers appreciate seeing important things first

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Importance: most important to least important

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reader is more likely to remember the most important item but you might loose their attention along the way

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Importance: least important to most important

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helps writers to treat topics consistently as well as make comparisons

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Criteria

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1. follows a prescribed plan that everyone understands 2. management gets exactly the info it needs in an easy to read form 3. simplify the task of organizing

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Convention

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operational reports recurring reports proposals

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What kind of reports may be organized conventionally

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1. Introduction 2. Transitions 3. headings

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Both formal and informal reports use what kind of devices to keep readers from getting lost?

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1. Tells the purpose of the report 2. Describes the significance 3. Previews the main points and the order in which they will be developed

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Introduction does what 3 things

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set up a contract with the reader the reader wants the topics to be developed as promised

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Good introductions do what?

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delay writing it until after you have completed the report

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How to maintain consistency in the introduction

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tell the readers where ideas are headed ad how they relate

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Transitions

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1. highlight major ideas 2. allow busy readers to see the big picture at a glance 3. may use functional or talking headings

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Headings

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1. show the outline of a report but provide little insight for reader 3. useful for routine reports 4. appropriate for sensitive topics

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Functional Headings

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Provide more info and spark interest Unless carefully written they can fail to reveal the organization of a report

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Talking Headings

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try to balance headings within levels for short reports use firth level or first and second level headings apply correct punctuation keep headings short but clear

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Points for creating headings

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1. All capital letters for main titles (report, chapters, unit titles) but capitalize first letter of main words for non main titles 2. No capitalization for articles, conjunctions, and prepositions

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Capitalizing and emphasizing for a heading

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Omit end punctuation in first and second level headings End punctuation is required for 3rd level headings

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Applying correct punctuation

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don't usually have to be persuaded usually neutral & receptive

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Informal report readers

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need little background material or introductory comments b/c readers are familiar with the topics

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Informational reports

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1. compress the main points 2. saves time 3. reduces report by 85 to 95%

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Summaries

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1. present the goal or purpose 2. Highlight research methods, findings, conclusions, and recommendations 3. omit illustrations, examples, and references 4. Organize for readability by including headings and bulleted lists 5. Include your reactions or an over all evaluation of the document

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5 Points in Summary Guideline

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summarizes a long report, proposals, or business plan concentrates on what management needs to know from a longer report

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Executive Summaries

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1. keep management informed and help them solve problems if needed 2. some of these simply contain figures 3. more challenging one require descriptions and discussion of activities 4. typically sent by e-mail

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Periodic/Activity Reports

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1. summarize regular activities and events 2. describe irregular events deserving of management attention 3. Highlight special needs and problems

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3 things periodic reports usually do

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1. inform management about new procedures, equipment, and laws. 2. As well as info affecting products, operations, and service 3. best not to use chronological sequencing

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Trip, Convention, and Conference Reports

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selecting the most relevant material and organizing it coherently

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Hardest part of writing trip, convention, and conference reports

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1. begin by identifying the event and previewing the topics you will discuss 2. summarize in the body 3-5 main points that might benefit reader 3. itemize your expenses on a separate sheet 4. close by expressing appreciation, suggesting action, or synthesizing the value of the trip/event

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4 points in the general outline for a trip, convention, and conference report

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often required for continuing projects in order to describe their status may be internal or external

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Progress and Interim Reports

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1. specify the purpose and nature of the project in the opening 2. provide background info 3. describe work completed 4. explain the work currently in progress 5. describe current and future problems and remedies 6. discuss future activities and provide expected completion date

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Typically follow what 6 point pattern of development

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1. deliver data for specific situations without offering interpretation or recommendations 2. nonrecurring reports 3. generally arranged using the direct strategy with 3 segments

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Investigative reports

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into body summary

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3 segments of investigative reports

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for nonsensitive topics and recommendations that will be agreeable to readers

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Direct Strategy

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1. identify the problem or need briefly 2. Announce the recommendations, solution, or action concisely with verbs 3. Explain more fully benefits of recommendations or steps to solve problem 4. Include discussion of pros, cons, and costs 5. Conclude with a summary specifying the recommendation and necessary action

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5 Steps in Direct Strategy Sequence

question

when readers may oppose a recommendation or when circumstances suggest caution dont rush to reveal recommendations

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Indirect Strategy

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1. Refer to the problem in general terms in the subject line 2. Describe the problem or need. use specific examples, stats, and quotes 3. Discuss alternative solutions, beginning with one least likely to succeed 4. Present the most promising alternative last 5. Show how the advantages of your recommendation outweigh disadvantages 6. Summarize your recommendation. 7. Ask for authorization to proceed

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7 step sequence for indirect strategy

question

Answer the question: "will this plan or proposal work?" Typically internal reports Written to advise on matters like consolidating departments, offering wellness programs, etc..

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Feasibility Reports

question

consultant hired to investigate problem

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Who else might write a feasibility report

question

1. Announce your decision immediately 2. Provide background and problem necessitating the proposal 3. Discuss benefits of proposal 4. Describe the problems that may result 5. Calculate associated costs 6. Show the time frame for implementing proposal

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6 steps in writing feasibility report

question

1. examine problems with two or more solutions 2. writer establishes criteria to compare alternatives 3. the criteria acts as yardstick against which alternatives are measured 4. advantage is that alternatives can be measured consistently

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Yardstick Report

question

1. begin by describing the problem/need 2. explain possible solutions and alternatives 3. establish criteria for comparing alternatives. tell how you selected it 4. discuss and evaluate each alternative 5. draw conclusions and make recommendations

answer

5 Steps for Writing Yardstick Report

question

grid

answer

You have just interviewed candidates for a sales position and you must reccomend one candidate for hire. You want to summarize each candidates key points, including experience, skills, education and other employment related info. What form should you use

question

analyze info logically and show how the data answers questions

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The conclusion of a report should do what?

question

is receptive to the info contained in the report

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Direct pattern of organization is appropriate for reports whose audience:

question

must be persuaded

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The indirect pattern of organization is best for readers who

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Convention

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Melinda must submit a sales report each week that contains headings established by her manager. This recurring report is organized by:

question

describe work completed, anticipated problems, and discuss future activities

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Progress and Interim Reports:

question

no

answer

Do correlations prove cause and effect relationships

question

no

answer

Can any set of data produce only one set of conclusions

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