Blue Box 4 – Flashcards
Unlock all answers in this set
Unlock answersquestion
Emergency procedure for establishing a normal heartbeat and rate of breathing. Combo of cardiac compression and artificial ventilation of the lungs via mouth-to-mouth respiration and hands only CPR. - Because the heart lies between two rigid structures- the sternum and vertebral column- pressure on the chest (compression) can be used to force blood out of the heart and into circulation. After calling 911, hands only CPR should be administered. Chest compression should be given hard and fast at a rate of 100 per minute and two inches deep in adults. This should be continued until trained medical professionals arrive or an automated external defibrillator is available. Standard CPR is still recommended for children and infants, as well as people who suffers from lack of oxygen, i.e drowning, drug overdose, or carbon monoxide poisoning.
answer
Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation (CPR)
question
Inflammation of Pericardium
answer
Pericarditis
question
Begins suddenly, no known cause but sometimes linked to viral infections. As a result of irritation to the pericardium, there is chest pain that may extend to the left shoulder and down the left arm (often mistake for heart attack), and pericardial friction rub (a scratchy or creaking sound heart through a stethoscope as the visceral layer of the serous pericardium rubs against the parietal layer of the serous pericardium.) Acute pericarditis usually lasts for about one week and is treated with drugs that reduce inflammation and pain such as ibuprofen or aspirin.
answer
Acute Pericarditis
question
Begins gradually and is long lasting. Buildup of pericardial fluid. If it accumulates, it is life threatening because the fluid compresses the heart, a condition called cardiac tamponade. As a result of the compression, ventricular filling is decreased, cardiac output is reduced, venous return to the heart is diminished, blood pressure falls, and breathing is difficult. Most causes of chronic pericarditis involving cardiac tamponade are unknown but it is sometimes caused by conditions such as cancer and tuberculosis. Treatment consists of draining the excess fluid through a needle passed into the pericardial cavity.
answer
Chronic Pericarditis
question
When the valves of the heart operate normally, they open fully and close completely at the proper times. Narrowing of a heart valve opening that restricts blood flow.
answer
Stenosis
question
Failure of a valve to close completely. Or incompetence.
answer
Insufficiency
question
Scar formation or a congenital defect causes narrowing of the mitral valve or insufficiency.
answer
Mitral stenosis
question
one cause of ________ is back-flow of blood from the left ventricle into the left atrium
answer
Mitral Insufficiency
question
back-flow of blood from the left ventricle into the left atrium. In MVP, one or both cusps of the mitral valve protrude into the left atrium during ventricular contraction. MVP is one of the most common valvular disorders, affecting as much as 30% of the population. It is more prevalent in women than men, and does not always pose a serious threat.
answer
Mitral Valve Prolapse (MVP)
question
Back-flow of blood from the aorta into the left ventricle
answer
Aortic insufficiency
question
Certain infectious diseases can damage or destroy the heart valves. An acute systemic inflammatory disease that usually occurs after a streptococcal infection of the throat. The bacteria triggers an immune response in which antibodies produced to destroy the bacteria instead attack and inflame the connective tissues in joints, heart valves, and other organs. Even though rheumatic fever may weaken the heart wall, most often it damages the mitral and aortic valves. -If daily activities are affected by symptoms and if a heart valve cannot be be repaired surgically, the valve must be replaced. Tissue valves may be provided by human donors or pigs, sometimes mechanical replacements are used. In any case, valve replacement involves open heart surgery. The aortic valve is the most commonly replaced heart valve.
answer
Rheumatic Fever
question
Partial obstruction of blood flow in the coronary arteries. A condition of reduced blood flow to the myocardium.
answer
Myocardial Ischemia
question
reduced oxygen supply which may weaken cells without killing them.
answer
Hypoxia
question
Strangled chest, severe pain that usually accompanies myocardial ischemia.
answer
Angina Pectoris
question
Complete obstruction to blood flow in a coronary artery, or heart attack. Infarction means death of an area of tissue bc of interrupted blood supply. Bc the heart tissue distal to the obstruction dies and is replaced by non contractile scar tissue, the heart muscle loses some of its strength. Depending on the size and location of the infarcted (dead) area, an infarction may disrupt the conduction system of the heart and cause sudden death by triggering ventricular fibrillation.
answer
Myocardial Infarction (MI)
question
If the SA node becomes damaged or diseased, the slower AVE node can pick up the pace making task. Its spontaneous pacing rate is 40 to 60 times per minute. If the activity of both nodes is suppressed, the heartbeat may still be maintained by autoarrhythmic fibers in the ventricles- the AV bundle, a bundle branch, or Purkinje fibers. However, the pacing rate is so slow (20-35 beats per minute) that blood flow to the brain is inadequate. When this condition occurs, normal heart rhythm can be restored and maintained by surgically implanting an __________, A device that sends out small electrical currents to stimulate the heart to contract. A pacemaker consists of a battery and impulse generator and is usually implanted beneath the skin just inferior to the clavicle. The pacemaker is connected to one or two flexible leads (wires) that are threaded through the superior vena cava and the passed into various chambers of the heart. Many of the new pacemakers, referred to as activity adjusted pacemakers, automatically speed up the heartbeat during exercise.
answer
Artificial Pacemaker
question
Heart sounds provide valuable information bout the mechanical operation of the heart. A heart murmur is an abnormal sound consisting of a clicking, rushing, or gurgling noise that is heard before, between, or after the normal heart sounds, or that may mask the normal heart sounds. Heart murmurs in children are extremely common and usually don't represent a health condition. These types of heart murmurs often subside or disappear with growth. Although some heart murmurs in adults are innocent, most often an adult heart murmur indicates a valve disorder.
answer
Heart murmur
question
serious medical problem that affects about 7 million people annually. Responsible for nearly three quarters of a million deaths in the US each year, it is the leading cause of death for both men and women. CAD is defined as the effects of the accumulation of atherosclerotic plaques in coronary arteries that lead to a reduction in blood flow to the myocardium. Some individuals have no signs or symptoms, other experience angina pectoris (chest pain) and still others suffer heart attacks.
answer
Coronary artery disease (CAD)
question
People who possess combinations of certain risk factors are more likely to develop CAD. Risk factors include smoking, high blood pressure, diabetes, high cholesterol levels, obesity, "Type A" personality, sedentary lifestyle, and family history of CAD. Most of these are modifiable; that is they can be altered by changing diet and other habits or can be controlled by taking meds. However, other risk factors are unmodifiable including genetic predisposition, age, and gender. Smoking doubles mortality and morbidity.
answer
Risk Factors for CAD
question
Thickening of the walls of arteries and loss of elasticity are the main characteristics of a group of diseases.
answer
Arteriosclerosis
question
progressive disease characterized by the formation of lesions in the walls of large and medium sized arteries called atherosclerotic plaques.
answer
Atherosclerosis
question
Molecules produced by the liver and small intestine. These spherical particles consist of an inner core of triglycerides and other lipids and an outer shell of proteins, phospholipids, and cholesterol. Most lipids, including cholesterol, do not dissolve in water; they must be made water-soluble in order to be transported in the blood.
answer
Lipoproteins
question
Transport cholesterol from the liver to body cells for use in cell membrane repair and the production of steroid hormones and bile salts but excessive amounts promote atherosclerosis so the cholesterol in these particles is sometimes referred to as "bad cholesterol."
answer
Low density lipo-proteins (LDL)
question
Remove excess cholesterol from body cells and transport it to the liver for elimination. Because HDLs decrease blood cholesterol level, the cholesterol in HDLs is referred to as good cholesterol.
answer
High density lipoproteins (HDL)
question
A defensive response of the body to tissue damage plays a key role in the development of atherosclerotic plaques. As a result of tissue damage, blood vessels dilate and increase their permeability, and phagocytes, including macrophages, appear in larger numbers. The formation of atherosclerotic plaques begins when excess LDLs from the blood accumulate in the inner layer of an artery wall. The lipids and proteins in the LDLs then undergo oxidation (removes electron from molecules), and the proteins to bind sugars. Macrophages ingest and become so filled with oxidized LDL particles that hey have a foamy appearance when viewed microscopically (foam cells.) T-cells (lymphocytes) follow monocytes into the inner lining of an artery and there release chemicals that intensify the inflammatory response.
answer
Inflammation
question
Foam cells, macrophages, and T cells form _________. The beginning of an atherosclerotic plaque. If the plaque is large enough, it can significantly decrease or stop the flow of blood and result in a heart attack. In most inflammatory responses, macrophages release chemicals that promote healing following fatty streak formation. However, macrophages and endothelial cells also secrete chemicals that cause smooth muscle cells of the middle layer of an artery to migrate to the top of the atherosclerotic plaque, forming a cap over it and thus walling it off from the blood.
answer
Fatty Streak
question
Bc most atherosclerotic plaques expand away from the bloodstream rather than into it, blood can still flow through the bloodstream rather than into it, blood can still flow through the affected artery with relative ease, often for decades. Only about 15%of heart attacks occur when plaque in a coronary artery expands into the bloodstream and restricts blood flow. Most heart attacks occur when the cap over the plaque breaks open in response to chemicals produced by foam cells. In addition, T cells induce foam cells to produce tissue factor (TF), a chemical that begins the cascade of reactions that results in blood clot formation. A number of other risk factors (all modifiable) have also been identified as significant predictors of CAD when their levels are elevated. _______________ are proteins produced by the liver or present in blood in an inactive form that are converted to an active form during inflammation.CRP may play a direct role in the development of atherosclerosis by promoting the uptake of LDL by macrophages.
answer
Creactive proteins (CRPSs)
question
an LDL-like particle that attaches to endothelial cells, macrophages, and blood platelets, inhibits blood clot breakdown and may promote smooth muscle fiber proliferation.
answer
Lipoprotein (a)
question
Glycoprotein involved in blood clotting, may help regulate cellular proliferation, vasoconstriction, and platelet aggregation.
answer
Fibrinogen
question
Amino acid that may induce blood vessel damage by promoting platelet aggregation and smooth muscle fiber proliferation.
answer
Homocysteine
question
Resting electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG) is the standard test employed to diagnose CAD.
answer
Diagnosis of CAD
question
In an exercise stress test, the functioning of the heart is monitored when placed under physical stress by exercising using a treadmill, a bicycle, or arm exercises. During the procedure, ECG recordings are monitored continuously and blood pressure is monitored at intervals. A non-exercise (pharmacological) stress test is used for individuals who cannot exercise due to conditions such as arthritis. A medication is injected that stresses the heart to mimic the effects of exercise. During both exercise and non-exercise stress testing, radionuclide imaging may be performed to evaluate blood flow through the heart muscle.
answer
Stress Testing
question
A radioactively labeled substance (radionuclide) is introduced into a vein, distributed throughout the body, and imaged to provide information about organ structure and function.
answer
Radionuclide Imaging
question
Technique that uses ultrasound waves to image the interior of the heart. It allows the heart to be seen in motion and can be used to determine the size, shape, and functions of the chamber; the volume and velocity of blood pumped from the heart and the status of heart valves; the presence of birth defects; and abnormalities of the pericardium.
answer
Echocardiography
question
Detects calcium deposits in coronary arteries. These calcium deposits are indicators of atherosclerosis.
answer
Electron beam computerized tomography (EBCT)
question
Computed assisted radiography procedure in which a contrast medium is injected into a vein and a beta blocker is given to decrease heart rate. These X-ray beams trace an arc around the heart and ultimately produce an image called a CCTA scan. This procedure is used primarily to detect blockages such as atherosclerotic plaque or calcium.
answer
Coronary (cardiac) computed tomography angiography (CCTA)
question
invasive procedure to visualize the heart's chambers, valves, and great vessels, in order to diagnose and treat disease not related to abnormalities of the coronary arteries. It may also be used to measure pressure in the heart and great vessels; assess cardiac output, measure the flow of blood through the heart and great vessels; identify the location of septal and valvular defects; and take tissue and blood samples. The procedure involves inserting a long, flexible, radio plaque catheter (plastic tube) into a peripheral artery (for left heart catheterization) and guiding it under fluoroscopy (x-ray).
answer
Cardiac Catheterization
question
Invasive procedure used to obtain information about the coronary arteries. A catheter is inserted into an artery in the groin or wrist and threaded under fluoroscopy toward the heart and then into the coronary arteries. After the tip of the catheter is in place, a radio plaque contrast medium is injected into the coronary arteries. The radiography of the arteries, called angiograms, appear in motion on a monitor, and the information is recorded on a videotape or computer disc. Coronary angiography may be used to visualize coronary arteries and to inject clot dissolving drugs such as streptokinase or tissue plasminogen activator (TPA) in to a coronary artery to dissolve an obstructing thrombus.
answer
Coronary Angiography
question
Treatment options include drugs (anti hypertensives, nitroglycerine, beta blockers, cholesterol-lowering drugs, and clot-dissolving agents) and various surgical and nonsurgical procedures designed to increase blood supply.
answer
Treatment of CAD
question
surgical procedure in which a blood vessel from another part of the body is attached (grafted) to a coronary artery to bypass an area of blockage. A piece of the grafted blood vessel is sutured between the aorta and the unblocked portion of the coronary artery.
answer
Coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG)
question
Non surgical. A balloon catheter is inserted into an artery of an arm or a leg and gently guided into a coronary artery. While dye is released, angiograms are taken to locate the plaques. Next, the catheter is advanced to the point of obstruction, and an intra aortic balloon pump is inflated with air to squash the plaque against the blood vessel wall. Because 30 to 50 percent of PTCA-opened arteries fail due to restenosis (re narrowing) within 6 months after the procedure, a stent may be inserted via a catheter. A stent is a metallic fine wire tube that is permanently placed in an artery to keep the artery patent open. Restenosis may be due to damage from the procedure itself, for PTCA may damage the arterial wall, leading to platelet activation, proliferation of smooth muscle fibers, and plaque formation. Recently, drug coated (drug-eluting) coronary stents have been used to prevent restenosis. The stents are coated with one of several anti-proliferative drugs (drugs that inhibit the proliferation of smooth muscle fibers of the middle layer of an artery) and anti-inflammatory drugs. It has been shown that drug coated stents reduce the rate of restenosis when compared to bare metal non-coated stents.
answer
Per cutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty (PTCA)
question
replacement of a severely damaged heart with a normal heart from a brain dead or recently deceased donor. Cardiac transplants are performed on patients with end stage heart failure or severe coronary artery disease. Once a suitable heart is located, the chest cavity is exposed through a midsternal cut. After the patient is placed on a heart lung by pass machine, which oxygenates and circulates blood, the pericardium is cute to expose the heart. Next, the diseased heart is removed (usually except for the posterior wall of the left atrium) and the donor heart is trimmed and sutured into position so that the remaining left atrium and great vessels are connected to the donor heart. The new heart is started as blood flows through it (an electrical shock may be used to correct an abnormal rhythm), the patient is weaned from the heart lung by pass machine and the chest is closed. The patient must remain on immuno-suppressant drugs for a lifetime to prevent rejection. Since the Vagus (X) nerve is severed during the surgery, the new heart will beat about 100 times per minute compared to a normal heart rate of 75 bpm. Usually, a donor is per-fused with a cold solution and then preserved in sterile ice. This can keep the heart viable for 4-5 hours.
answer
Cardiac (heart) transplant
question
Angiogensis is important bc cells of a _________ secrete proteins called tumor angiogenesis factors (TAFs) that stimulate blood vessel growth to provide nourishment for the tumor cells. Scientists are seeking chemicals that would inhibit angiogenesis and thus stop the growth of tumors.
answer
Malignant Tumor
question
angiogenesis may be important in the development of blood vessels that actually cause blindness, so finding inhibitors of angiogenesis may also prevent the blindness associated with diabetes.
answer
Diabetic retinopathy
question
Leaky venous valves can cause veins to become dilated and twisted in appearance. The condition may occur in the veins of almost any body part, but it is most common in the esophagus, the anal canal, and superficial veins of the lower limbs. Varicose Veins in the lower limbs can range from cosmetic problems to serious medical conditions. The valvular defect may be congenital, or it may result from mechanical stress or aging. The leaking venous valves allow back-flow of blood from the deep veins to the less efficient superficial veins, where blood pools. This creates pressure that distends the vein and allows fluid to leak into surrounding tissue. As a result, the affected vein and the tissue around it may become inflamed and painfully tender. Veins close to the surface of the legs, especially the saphenous vein are highly susceptible to varicosities; deeper veins are not as vulnerable because surrounding skeletal muscles prevent their walls from stretching excessively. Varicose veins in the anal canal are referred to as hemorrhoids. Esophageal varices result from dilated veins in the walls of the lower part of the esophagus and sometimes the upper part of the stomach. Bleeding esophageal varices are life-threatening and are usually a result of chronic liver disease.
answer
Varicose Veins
question
Elastic stockings (support hose) may be used for individuals with mild symptoms or for whom other options are not recommended. Sclerotherapy involves injection of a solution into varicose veins that damages the tunica interna by producing a harmless superficial thrombophlebitis (inflammation involving a blood clot). Healing of the damaged part leads to scar formation that occludes the vein. Radiofrequency endovenous occlusion involves the application of radiofrequency energy to heat up and close off varicose veins. Laser occlusion uses laser therapy to shut down veins. In a surgical procedure called stripping. veins may be removed. In this more invasive procedure, a flexible wire is threaded through the vein and then pulled out to strip it from the body.
answer
Treatment options for varicose veins
question
Persistent high blood pressure. Major cause of heart failure, kidney disease, and stroke.
answer
Hypertension
question
Normal - (S): Less than 120 and (D): Less than 80 Prehypertention - 120-39 or 80-89 Stage 1 Hypertension - 140-159 or 90-99 Stage 2 Hypertension - Greater than 160 or Greater than 100 -Causes thicknening of the tunica media, accelerates development of atherosclerosis and coronary artery diseases and increases systemic vascular resistance. In the heart, hypertension increases and forces the ventricles to work harder to eject blood.
answer
BP Guidelines
question
a persistently elevated blood pressure that cannot be attributed to any identifiable cause.
answer
Primary hypertension
question
identifiable underlying cause. -Obstruction of renal blood flow or disorders that damage renal tissue that may cause the kidneys to release excessive amounts of an enzyme called renin into the blood. Renin converts angiotensinogen (a plasma protein produced by the liver) into the hormone angiotensin I. In the lungs, angiotensin I level of angiotensin II causes vasoconstriction thus increasing systemic vascular resistance. -Hypersecretion of aldosterone resulting, for instance, from a tumor of the adrenal cortex stimulates excess reabsorption of salt and water by the kidneys, which increases the volume of body fluids. -Hypersecretion of epinephrine and norepinephrine by a pheochromocytoma, a tumor of the adrenal medulla. Epinephrine and norepinephrine increase heart rate and contractility and increase systemic vascular resistance.
answer
Secondary Hypertension
question
Acute inflammation of the peritoneum, is contamination of the peritoneum by infectious microbes, which can result from accidental or surgical wounds in their abdominal wall, or from perforation or rupture of abdominal organs. For example, if bacteria gain access to the peritoneal cavity through an intestinal perforation or rupture of the appendix, they can produce an acute life-threatening form of peritonitis. Can also result from rubbing together of inflamed peritoneal surfaces. The increased risk of peritonitis is of concern to those who rely on peritoneal dialysis Kama a procedure in which the peritoneum is used to filter the blood when kidneys do not function properly.
answer
Peritonitis
question
Are there any of the salivary glands may be the target of a nasopharyngeal infection, the mumps virus typically attacks the parotid glands. It is an inflammation and enlargement of the parotid glands accompanied by moderate fever, malaise, and extreme pain in the throat, especially when swallowing sour foods are acidic juices. Swelling occurs on both or one side of the face, just anterior to the ramus of the mandible. In about 30% of males passed puberty, the testes are inflamed, the reality rarely occurs because testicular involvement is usually one testis only.
answer
Mumps
question
Multi-step procedure in which all traces of Pulp tissue are removed from the pulp cavity and root canals of a badly diseased tooth . after a hole is made in the tooth, the root canals are filed out in irrigated to remove bacteria. Then the canals are treated with medication and sealed tightly. The damaged Crown is then repaired
answer
Root canal therapy
question
Collective term for a variety of conditions characterized by inflammation and degeneration of the gingiva, alveolar bone , periodontal ligament, and cementum
answer
Periodontal disease
question
Initial symptoms include enlargement and inflammation of the soft tissue and bleeding of the gums. Without treatment, the soft tissue May deteriorate and the alveolar bone may be resorbed, causing loosening of the teeth , recession of the gums. Mostly caused by poor oral hygiene, local irritants such as bacteria, and packaged food and cigarette smoke and by a poor bite
answer
Pyorrhea
question
Tooth decay involves a gradual demineralization of the enamel and Dentin. If untreated, microorganisms May invade the pulp, causing inflammation and infection, with subsequent death of the pulp and abscess of the alveolar bone surrounding the roots Apex, requiring root canal therapy. Dental caries begin when bacteria acting on sugars produced acids that demineralized enamel
answer
Dental caries
question
Sticky polysaccharide produced from sucrose causes the bacteria to stick to the teeth.
answer
Dextran
question
Masses of bacterial cells, dextran, and other debris adhering to teeth constitute Dental plaque. Saliva cannot reach the tooth surface to buffer the acid because the plaque covers the teeth. Brushing the teeth after eating remove the plaque from flat surfaces before the bacteria can produce acids. Dentist also recommend that the plaque between the teeth be removed every 24 hours with floss
answer
Dental plaque
question
If the lower esophageal sphincter fails to close adequately after food has entered the stomach, the stomach contents can reflux into the inferior portion of the esophagus
answer
Gastro esophageal reflux disease
question
Hydrochloric acid from the stomach contents can irritate the esophageal wall resulting in a burning sensation because it is experienced in a region very near the heart. Unrelated to any cardiac problem. Drinking alcohol and smoking can cause the sphincter to relax worsening the problem. Symptoms can be controlled by avoiding foods that stimulate stomach acid secretion like coffee chocolate tomatoes fatty foods orange juice peppermint spearmint and onions. Symptoms are less likely to occur if food is eaten in smaller amounts and if the person does not lie down immediately after a meal. May be associated with cancer of the esophagus
answer
Heartburn
question
2 abnormalities of the pyloric sphincter can occur in infants. The smooth muscle fibers of the center failed to relax normally, so food does not pass easily from the stomach to the small intestine, the stomach becomes overly full, and the infant vomits to relieve the pressure. Pylorospasm is treated by drugs that relax the muscle fibers of the pyloric sphincter
answer
Pylorospasm
question
Narrowing of the Lord stinker that must be corrected surgically. The Hallmark symptom is projectile vomiting, the spring of liquid vomit is some distance from the infant
answer
Pyloric stenosis
question
Emesis. Forcible expulsion of the contents of the upper GI tract comma stomach and sometimes duodenum, through the mouth. The strongest stimuli for vomiting or irritation and distention of the stomach, other stimuli include unpleasant sights, general anesthesia, dizziness, and certain drugs, such as morphine and derivatives of digitalis. Nerve impulses are transmitted to the vomiting Center in the medulla oblongata, and returnee impulses travel to the upper GI tract organs, diaphragm, and abdominal muscles. Vomiting basically involves squeezing the stomach between the diaphragm and abdominal muscles and expelling the contents through open esophageal sphincter period prolonged vomiting, especially in infants and elderly people can be serious because the loss of acidic gastric juices can lead to alkalosis comma higher than normal blood pH, dehydration, and damage to the esophagus and teeth.
answer
Vomiting
question
Inflammation of the pancreas as may occur in association with alcohol abuse or chronic gallstones
answer
Pancreatitis
question
Associated with heavy alcohol intake or biliary tract obstruction comma the pancreatic cells May release an enzyme trypsin, instead of trypsinogen or insufficient amounts of trypsin inhibitor, and they trypsin begins to digest the pancreatic cells.
answer
Acute pancreatitis
question
Affects people over 50 years of age and occurs more frequently in males. Typically they are a few symptoms until the disorder reaches an advanced stage and often not until it has metastasized to other parts of the body such as the lymph nodes, liver, or lungs. The disease is always fatal and is the fourth most common cause of death from cancer in the US. Has been linked to fatty foods, high alcohol consumption, genetic factors, smoking and chronic pancreatitis
answer
Pancreatic cancer
question
Inflammation of the liver that can caused by viruses, drugs, and chemicals, including alcohol.
answer
Hepatitis
question
Infectious hepatitis caused by the hepatitis A virus spread via fecal contamination of objects such as food, clothing, toys, and eating utensils. Generally and Mild disease of children and young adults characterized by loss of appetite, malaise, nausea, diarrhea, fever, and chills. This type does not cause lasting liver damage. Most people recover in four to six weeks
answer
Hepatitis A
question
Spread primarily by sexual contact and contaminated syringes in transfusion equipment. Can also be spread via saliva and tears. Can be present for years or even a lifetime. Can produce cirrhosis and possibly cancer of the liver. Individuals who Harbor the active Hepatitis B virus can also become carriers. Vaccines produced through recombinant DNA technology are available to prevent hepatitis B infection
answer
Hepatitis B
question
Clinically similar to hepatitis b period can cause cirrhosis and possibly liver cancer period and developed Nations, donated blood a screen for the presence of hepatitis B and C
answer
HepatitisC
question
Caused by hepatitis D virus. Transmitted like Hepatitis B and in fact a person must have been Co infected with hepatitis B before contracting hepatitis D. Hepatitis D results in severe liver damage and has a higher fatality rate than an infection with hepatitis B virus alone.
answer
HepatitisD
question
Caused by hepatitis C virus and a spread like hepatitis A. Although it does not cause chronic liver disease, hepatitis C virus has a very high mortality rate among pregnant woman
answer
Hepatitis E
question
Blood tests designed to determine the presence of certain chemicals released by liver cells. These include albumin globulinase, alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase Kama alkaline phosphatase , gamma glutamyl transpeptidase, a and bilirubin. The tests are used to evaluate and monitor liver disease or damage. Common causes of elevated liver enzymes include non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, cholesterol-lowering medications, some antibiotics, alcohol, diabetes, infections, gallstones, tumors of the liver, and excessive use of herbal supplements such as kava, comfrey , Pennyroyal, dandelion roots , skull cap, and ephedra
answer
Liver function tests
question
If bile contains either insufficient bile salts or less than or excessive cholesterol, the cholesterol make crystallized. As they grow in size and number, gallstones may cause minimal, intermittent, or complete obstruction to the flow of bile from the gallbladder into the duodenum. Treatment consists of using gallstone dissolving drugs, lithotripsy, or surgery.
answer
Gallstones
question
For people with a history of gallstones or for whom drugs or lithotripsy are not options. Removal of the gallbladder and its contents. Limit intake of saturated fats comma avoiding the consumption of alcoholic beverages comma eating smaller amounts of food during a meal and eating five to six small meals per day instead of two to three larger meals, and taking vitamin and mineral supplements.
answer
Cholecystectomy
question
Inflammation of the lining of the stomach and intestine specially small intestine. Caused by viral or bacterial infection that may be acquired by contaminated food or water or by people in close contact period symptoms include diarrhea, vomiting, fever, loss of appetite, cramps and abdominal discomfort.
answer
Gastroenteritis
question
The absorptive cells of the small intestine fail to produce enough of the enzyme lactase Kama which is essential for the digestion of lactose. Undigested lactose in chyme causes fluid to be retained in the feces. Bacterial fermentation of the undigested lactose results in the production of gases period symptoms include diarrhea gas bloating and abdominal cramps after consumption of milk and other dairy products. Symptoms can be minor or serious. The hydrogen breath test is often used to Aid and diagnosis of lactose intolerance. Very little hydrogen can be detected in the breath of a normal person, but hydrogen is among the gas is produced when undigested lactose is in the colon fermented by bacteria. Hydrogen is absorbed from the intestines and carried through the bloodstream to the lungs where it is exhaled. They should select a diet that restricts lactose but not calcium and take dietary supplements to Aid the digestion of lactose.
answer
Lactose Intolerance
question
An ulcer is a crater-like lesion in a membrane; ulcers develop in areas of the GI tract exposed to acidic gastric juice are called peptic ulcers. Most common complication is bleeding, which can lead to anemia if enough blood is lost. In acute cases, peptic ulcers can lead to shock and death. Three distinct causes are recognized: bacterium helicobacter pylori , nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs such as aspirin, hypersecretion of HCL zollinger-ellison syndrome, which involved a gastrin producing tumor usually of the pancreas.Helicobacter pylori it's most frequent cause of PUD. The bacterium produces enzyme called urease, which splits into ammonia and carbon dioxide. When shielding material from the acidity of the stomach, the ammonia also damages the protective layer of the stomach & the underlying gastric cells. Also produces catalase, an enzyme that may protect the microbe from phagocytosis by neutrophils, plus several adhesion proteins that allow the bacterium to attach itself to gastric cells.
answer
Peptic ulcer disease PUD
question
Surgical procedure that limits the amount of food that can be ingested and absorbed to bring about a significant weight loss in obese individuals. Most commonly performed type called gastric bypass surgery. Small pouch about the size of a walnut is created at the top of the stomach. Sealed off using surgical Staples for plastic band. Pouch just connected to the Juojenum of the small intestine, this bypassing the rest of the stomach and the duodenum. The result is that small amounts of food are ingested in fear nutrients are absorbed in the small intestine. This leads to weight loss
answer
Bariatric surgery
question
Visual examination of the lining of the colon using an elongated flexible fiberoptic endoscope called a colonoscope. Used to detect disorders such as polyps, cancer, and diverticulosis. To make a tissue sample and to remove small polyps. Most tumors of the large intestine occurs in the rectum.
answer
Colonoscopy
question
Increase in the frequency, volume, and fluid content of the feces caused by increased motility of and decreased absorption by the intestines. When chyme passes too quickly through the small intestine and feces pass too quickly through the large intestine, there is not enough time for absorption. Can result in dehydration and electrolyte imbalances. Excessive motility may be caused by lactose intolerance, stress, or microbes that irritate the gastrointestinal mucosa.
answer
Diarrhea
question
Refers to infrequent or difficult defecation caused by decreased motility of the intestines. Because the feces remain in the colon for prolonged periods of time comma excessive water absorption occurs, and the feces become dry and hard. Constipation may be caused by poor habits delaying defecation, spasms of the colon, insufficient fiber in the diet, an adequate fluid intake, lack of exercise, emotional stress, and certain drugs. A common treatment is a mild laxative such as milk of magnesia which induces defecation. However, many Physicians maintain that laxatives are habit-forming, and that adding fiber to the diet, increasing the amount of exercise comma and increasing fluid intake are safer ways.
answer
Constipation
question
Deadliest of malignancies. Genetics plays a very important role, an inherited predisposition contributes to more than half of all cases of colorectal cancer. Intake of alcohol and diets high in animal fat and protein are associated with increased risk of colorectal cancer , dietary fiber, aspirin, calcium, and selenium may be protective. Signs and symptoms of colorectal cancer include diarrhea, constipation, cramping, abdominal pain, and rectal bleeding, either visible or occult.
answer
Colorectal cancer
question
Pre-cancerous growth on the mucosal surface increase the risk of developing colorectal cancer. Screening includes testing for blood in the feces, digital rectal examination Kama sigmoidoscopy Kama colonoscopy, and barium enema. Tumors may be removed endoscopically or surgically
answer
Polyps
question
"nose job", surgical procedure to alter the shape of the external nose. Done for cosmetic reasons, it is sometimes performed to repair a fractured nose or a deviated nasal septum. With anesthesia, instruments inserted through the nostrils are used to reshape the nasal cartilage and fracture and reposition the nasal bones to achieve the desire shape. An internal packing an splint keep the nose in the desired position while it heals.
answer
Rhinoplasty
question
surgical removal of the tonsils. The procedure is usually performed under general anesthesia on an outpatient basis. Tonsillectomies are performed in individuals who have frequent tonsillitis, inflammation of the tonsils; those who have tonsils that develop an abscess of tumor; or when the tonsils obstruct breathing during sleep.
answer
Tonsillectomy
question
Common cold, group of viruses called rhinoviruses. Sneezing, nasal secretion, dry cough, and congestion. Not usually with fever. Complications include sinusitis, asthma, bronchitis, ear infections, and laryngitis. Association between emotional stress and the common cold.
answer
Coryza
question
caused by virus. Chills, fever (higher than 101F) headache, and aches. Life threatening and may develop into pneumonia. Respiratory disease.
answer
Seasonal influenza (flu)
question
swine flu, type of influenza causes by influenza h1n1. genes similar to ones in pigs. Very different however. Declared to be a global pandemic disease. Spreads from person to person by coughing, sneezing, touching infected stuff, touching one's mouth. Take antiviral drugs, like Tamiflu and Relenza.
answer
H1N1 Flu
question
inflammation of the larynx caused by respiratory infection or irritants such as cigarette smoke. Inflammation of the vocal chords causes hoarseness or loss of voice by interfering with the contraction of the folds or by causing them to swell to the point where they cannot vibrate freely. Many long term smokers acquire a permanent hoarseness from the damage done by chronic inflammation.
answer
Laryngitis
question
found in almost exclusively in individuals who smoke. Hoarseness, pain on swallowing, or pain radiating into war. Treatments consists of radiation therapy or surgery.
answer
Cancer of the larynx
question
Conditions blocking airflow by obstructing the trachea. Tracheal cartilage may be accidentally crushed, the mucous membrane may become inflamed and swell so much that it closes off the passageway, excess mucus secreted by inflamed membranes may clog the lower respiratory passages, a large object may be aspirated, or a cancerous tumor may protrude. If the obstruction is above the level of the larynx, _______ may be performed. A skin incision followed by short longitudinal incision into the trachea below the cricoid cartilage. A tube is inserted for emergency air passageway.
answer
Tracheotomy
question
tube is inserted into the mouth or nose and passed inferior through the larynx and trachea. The firm wall of the tube pushes aside any flexible obstruction, and the lumen of the tube provides a passageway for air; any mucus clogging the trachea can be suctioned out through the tube.
answer
Intubation
question
Bronchial smooth muscle goes into spasm. Because there is no supporting cartilage, the spasms can reduce the lumen or even close off the air passageways. Movement of air through constricted bronchioles causes breathing to be more labored. The parasympathetic division of the ANS and mediators of allergic reactions such as histamine and also causes narrowing of bronchioles due to contraction of bronchiolar or smooth muscle. Because air moving through a restricted Lumen causes a noise, the breathing of a true asthmatic can often be heard across the room. The principle is similar to that of a vacuum cleaner, it is so noisy because a large volume of air is moving through a small or restricted tube. Sometimes be triggered by an allergen.
answer
Asthma
question
Disorder characterized by excessive secretion of bronchial mucus accompanied by a cough. Inhaled irritants lead to chronic inflammation with an increase in the size and number of mucous glands and goblet cells in the airway epithelium. The second and excessive mucus Narrows the airway and impairs the action of cilia. Thus, inhaled pathogens become embedded in Airway secretions and multiply rapidly. Besides a cough, symptoms of chronic bronchitis or shortness of breath, wheezing, cyanosis, and pulmonary hypertension.
answer
Chronic bronchitis
question
Inflammation of the pleural membrane comma May in its early stages cause pain due to friction between the parietal and visceral layers of the pleura.
answer
Pleurisy or pleuritis
question
Inflammation persists, excess fluid accumulates in the pleural space
answer
Pleural effusion
question
Pleural cavities may fill with air. Air in pleural cavities are commonly introduced in surgical opening of the chest or as a result of a stab or gunshot wound Kama may cause the lungs to collapse.
answer
Pneumothorax
question
Pleural cavities filled with blood or pus
answer
Hemothorax
question
Collapsed part of a long, or rarely an entire long. The goal of treatment as the evacuation of air or blood from the pleural space, which allows the lung to re-inflate. A small pneumothorax May resolve on its own comma but it is often necessary to insert a chest tube to assist in evacuation.
answer
Atelectasis
question
Rare cancer that affects the mesothelium of a serous membrane. Most entirely caused by asbestos. Chest pain, shortness of breath, pleural effusion , fatigue , anemia ,blood in sputum coughed up , wheezing , hoarseness, and unexplained weight loss loss. No cure, prognosis is poor.
answer
Malignant mesotheliomamp
question
-Nicotine constricts terminal bronchioles, which decreases air flow into and out of the lungs - carbon monoxide and smoke binds to hemoglobin and reduces its oxygen-carrying capability - irritants in smoke cause increased mucus secretion by the mucosa of the bronchial tree and swelling of the mucosal lining, both of which impede airflow into and out of the lungs - irritants and smoke also inhibit the movement of cilia and Destroy cilia in the lining of the respiratory system. Thus, excess mucus and foreign debris are not easily removed, which further adds to the difficulty in breathing. Irritants can also convert the normal respiratory epithelium into stratified squamous epithelium comma which lacks cilia and goblet cells. - smoking leads to destruction of elastic fibers in the lungs and is the prime cause of emphysema. These changes cause collapse of small bronchioles and trapping of air in alveoli at the end of exhalation. The result is less efficient gas exchange.
answer
Effects of smoking on the respiratory system
question
Disorder characterized by destruction of the walls of the alveoli, which produces abnormally large air spaces that remain filled with air during exhalation. With less surface area for gas exchange, oxygen diffusion across the respiratory membrane is reduced. Blood oxygen level is somewhat lowered, and any mild exercise that raises the oxygen requirements of the cells leaves the patient Breathless period as increasing numbers of alveolar walls are damaged, long elastic recoil decreases due to loss of elastic fibers, and an increasing amount of air becomes trapped in the lungs at the end of exhalation. Over several years, respiratory exertion increases the size of the chest cage, resulting in a barrel chest. Emphysema is a common precursor to the development of lung cancer.
answer
Emphysema
question
Cigarette smoke common cause. Exposure to secondhand smoke is also associated with lung cancer and heart disease.
answer
Lung cancer
question
starts in the epithelium of the bronchial tubes. Adenocarcinomas developing peripheral areas of the lungs from bronchial glands and alveolar cells Kama squamous cell carcinomas develop from the squamous cells in the epithelium of larger bronchial tubes, and small cell carcinomas develop from epithelial cells in the main bronchi near the hilum of the lungs. They get their name due to their flat cell shape with little cytoplasm and they tend to involve the mediastinum early on. Bronchogenic carcinoma metastasize into lymph nodes the brain bones liver and other organs.
answer
Bronchogenic carcinoma
question
Acute infection or inflammation of the alveoli. When certain microbes enter the lungs of susceptible individuals Kama they release harmful toxins, stimulating inflammation and immune responses that have damaging side effects. The toxins and immune response damaged alveoli and bronchioles mucous membranes, inflammation and edema cause the alveoli to fill with fluid, interfering with ventilation and gas exchange. Most common cause of pneumonia is pneumococcal bacterium, but other microbes may also cause pneumonia. Most susceptible are elderly, and fence, and immunocompromised individuals , cigarette smokers, and individuals with obstructive lung disease. Most cases of pneumonia are preceded by an upper respiratory infection that is often viral. Fever chills productive or dry cough malaise chest pain and sometimes dyspnea. And hemoptysis. Treatment may involve antibiotics, bronchodilators come on oxygen therapy, increased fluid intake, and chest Physiotherapy
answer
Pneumonia
question
Synthetic hormones that block The receptors for certain naturally occurring hormones are available as drugs. Ru-486 used to induce abortion binds to The receptors for progesterone and prevents it from exerting its normal fixed. Ru486 is given to a pregnant woman, the uterine conditions needed for nurturing an embryo are not maintained , embryonic development stops, and the embryos load off along with the uterine lining.RU 486 is often in conjunction with one or two other drugs, methotrexate and misoprostol. If a hormone is prevented from interacting with a certain receptors, hormone cannot perform the hormone cannot perform its normal functions
answer
Block the receptors
question
Inadequate release of a hormone
answer
Hyposecretion
question
Excessive release of a hormone
answer
Hypersecretion
question
Hyposecretion of human growth hormone during the growth years
answer
Pituitary dwarfism
question
Hypersecretion of HGH during the growth years , abnormal increase in the length of long bones. A person grows to be very tall but body proportions are about normal
answer
Gigantism
question
Hypersecretion of HGH during adulthood. Although HGH cannot produce further lengthening of the long bones because the epiphyseal plates are already closed, the bones of the hands feet cheeks and jaws and other tissues enlarge. In addition, the eyelids lips tongue and nose and large and the skin thickens and develops grows especially on the forehead and Soles
answer
Acromegaly
question
Hyposecretion of thyroid hormones that is present at birth causes severe mental retardation and stunted bone growth. At Birth the baby typically is normal because lipids soluble maternal thyroid hormones cross the placenta during pregnancy and allowed normal development. If congenital hypothyroidism exist oral thyroid hormone treatment must be started soon after birth and continued for life.
answer
Congenital hypothyroidism
question
Hypothyroidism during the adult years. More often and females. Edema causes the facial tissues to swell and look puffy. Slow heart rate low body temperature sensitivity to cold dry hair and skin muscular weakness General lethargy and a tendency to gain weight easily. Because the brain has already reached maturity, mental retardation does not occur but the person may be less alert. Oral thyroid hormones reduce the symptoms.
answer
Myxedema
question
Hyperthyroidism. More often in females. Autoimmune disorder in which the person produces antibodies that mimic the action of thyroid stimulating hormone TSH. The antibodies continually stimulate the thyroid gland to grow and produce thyroid hormones. A primary sign is enlarged thyroid. Peculiar edema behind the eyes called exophthalmos. Causes the eyes to protrude. Treatment may include surgical removal of part or all of the thyroid gland, the use of radioactive iodine comma to destroy thyroid issue and the use of anti thyroid drugs to block synthesis of thyroid hormones
answer
Graves disease
question
Enlarged thyroid gland may be associated with hyperthyroidism hypothyroidism and euthyroidism. Which is the latter is normal secretion of thyroid hormone. In some areas, dietary iodine intake is inadequate , the resultant low-level thyroid hormone in the blood stimulates secretion of TSH which causes thyroid gland enlargement.
answer
Goiter
question
Too little parathyroid hormone leads to a deficiency of blood calcium which causes neurons and muscle fibers to depolarize and produce Action potentials spontaneously. This leads to Twitches spasms and tetany of skeletal muscle. The leading cause of hypoparathyroidism is accidental damage to the parathyroid glands or to their blood supply during thyroidectomy surgery.
answer
Hypoparathyroidism
question
Elevated level of parathyroid hormone often do to a tumor of one of the parathyroid glands. An elevated level of pth causes excessive resorption of bone matrix raising the blood levels of calcium and phosphate ions and causing bones to become soft and easily fractured. High blood calcium level promotes formation of kidney stones. Fatigue personality changes and lethargy are also seen in patients.
answer
Hyperparathyroidism
question
Genetic disorder in which one or more enzymes needed for synthesis of cortisol are absent. Because the cortisol level is low secretion of ACTH by the anterior pituitary is high due to lack of negative feedback inhibition. ACTH in turn stimulates growth and secretory activity of the adrenal cortex. As a result, both adrenal glands are enlarged. Precursor molecules accumulate and some of these are weak androgens that can undergo conversion to testosterone.
answer
Congenital adrenal hyperplasia
question
Masculinization. And a female virile characteristics include growth of a beard development of a much deeper voice in a masculine distribution of body hair growth of the clitoris so they resemble a penis atrophy of the breasts and increased muscularity that produces a masculine physique. And pre-pubertal males comma the Syndrome causes the same characteristics as in females plus rapid development of the male sexual organs and emergence of male sexual desires.
answer
Virilism
question
Hypersecretion of cortisol by the adrenal cortex. Causes included tumor of the adrenal gland that secretes cortisol or a tumor elsewhere that secretes adrenocorticotropic hormone which in turn stimulates excessive secretion of cortisol. The condition is characterized by breakdown of muscle proteins and distribution of body fat, resulting and spindly arms and legs accompanied by a rounded moon face, buffalo hump , and pendulous hanging abdomin. Facial skin is flushed and the skin covering the abdomen develop stretch marks. Person bruises easily and wound healing is poor. Elevated level of cortisol causes hyperglycemia osteoporosis weakness hypertension increased susceptibility to infection decreased resistance to stress and mood swings
answer
Cushing syndrome
question
Chronic adrenocortical insufficiency. Hyposecretion of glucocorticoids and aldosterone. Majority of cases are autoimmune disorders which antibiotic causes adrenal cortex destruction or block binding of ACH to its receptors. Symptoms include mental lethargy anorexia nausea and vomiting weight loss hypoglycemia and muscular weakness. Loss of aldosterone leads to elevated potassium and decreased sodium in the blood low blood pressure dehydration decreased cardiac output arrhythmias and even cardiac arrest. Treatment consist of replacing glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids and increasing sodium in the diet.
answer
Addison's disease
question
Benign tumors of the chromaffin two cells of the Adrenal medulla. Cause hypersecretion of epinephrine and norepinephrine. Prolonged version of the fight or flight response rapid heart rate high blood pressure high levels of glucose in blood and urine elevated basal metabolic rate flushed face nervousness sweating and decreased gastrointestinal motility. Treatment is surgical removal of the tumor
answer
Pheochromocytomas
question
Stress can lead to particular diseases but temporarily inhibiting certain components of the immune system. Stress-related disorders include gastritis, ulcerative colitis, irritable bowel syndrome, hypertension, asthma, rheumatoid arthritis, migraine headaches, anxiety, and depression. People under stress are at a greater risk of developing chronic disease or dying prematurely. Interleukin-1 is a substance secreted by macrophages of the immune system which is an important link between stress and immunity. One action is to stimulates secretion of ACTH which in turn stimulates the production of cortisol. Not only does Cortisol provide resistance to stress and inflammation but it also suppresses further production of interleukin-1. The immune system turns on the stress response and the resulting cortisol is then turns off one immune system mediator. These negative feedback system keeps the immune response and check once it has accomplished its goal. Because of this activity cortisol and other glucocorticoids are used as immunosuppressive drugs for organ transplant recipients.
answer
Stress hormones and disease
question
Caused by an inability to produce or use insulin. Damage to the cardiovascular system. Because insulin is unavailable to a transport of glucose into body cells comma blood glucose level is high and glucose spills into the urine glucosesuria. Hallmarks of diabetes mellitus are the three poly's , polyurea excessive urine production due to an inability of the kidneys to reabsorb water Kama polydipsia and polyphagia
answer
Diabetes mellitus
question
Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus occurs because the person's immune system destroys the pancreatic beta cells. As a result the pancreas produces little or no insulin period usually develops and people younger than 20 and persist throughout life. Because insulin is not present to Aid the entry of glucose into the body cells, most cells use fatty acids to produce ATP. The byproducts of fatty acid break down organic acids called ketones or Ketone bodies accumulate. Breakdown of stored triglycerides also causes weight loss. Lipids are transported by the blood from Storage Depots to cells Kama lipid particles are deposited on the walls of blood vessels comma leading to a thorough sclerosis and a multitude of cardiovascular problems , including cerebrovascular insufficiency , ischemic heart disease cama peripheral vascular disease, and gangrene. Major complication of diabetes is loss of vision due to either cataracts attachment of excess glucose to the lens proteins causing cloudiness comma or damage to blood vessels in the retina. Severe kidney problems may also result from damage to renal blood vessels.
answer
Type 1 diabetes
question
Ketones accumulate smell of alcohol on breath
answer
Ketoacidosis
question
Non insulin dependent diabetes mellitus. Most often in obese people over 35. Clinical symptoms are mild and the high glucose levels in blood off and can be controlled by diet exercise and weight loss. Although some type 2 diabetics need insulin many have a sufficient amount of insulin in the blood. In such cases diabetes arises not from a shortage of insulin but because target cells become less sensitive to it due to down regulation of insulin receptors.
answer
Type 2 diabetes
question
Most often results when a diabetic injects too much insulin. Main symptom of hypoglycemia which is decreased blood glucose level which occurs because the excess insulin stimulates too much uptake of glucose by body cells. Result in hypoglycemia stimulates secretion of epinephrine glucagon and human growth hormone. Consequences are anxiety sweating Tremor increased heart rate hunger and weakness occur. When blood glucose false brain cells are deprived of a steady supply of glucose they need to function effectively. Severe hypoglycemia leads to mental disorder patient convulsions unconsciousness and shock
answer
Hyperinsulinism
question
Shock due to an insulin overdose. Death can occur quickly unless blood glucose level is restored to normal levels.
answer
Insulin shock
