Argument/Logical Fallacies – Flashcards

i. Introduces reader to subject ii. This can be one or more several paragraphs iii. This often established a writer's ethos

i. Provides factual information, background, and establishes why the subject is a problem ii. Level of detail will vary based on audience iii. It can appeal to logos or pathos

i. Usually the major part of the text ii. This includes the proof or evidence needed to make the argument iii. This section contains the most specific detail

i. Addresses the counterargument ii. It can provide a bridge between the evidence and the conclusion iii. This does not have to come near the end, but often does iv. This is typically an appeal to logos

i. Brings the essay to a satisfying conclusion ii. Usually appeals to pathos and reestablishes ethos iii. This should answer the question "so what?" and should not just regurgitate what was earlier stated.

1. Definition - "to lead into." This means arranging an argument so that it leads from particulars to a universal or general statement. i. Scientific method is founded on inductive reasoning ii. An essay composed entirely of reasons that support a main point is inductive iii. These can only lead to probability, not certainty. They cannot be evaluated as right or wrong, but strong or weak. 2. Example - Regular exercise promotes weight loss, exercise lowers stress levels

1. Definition -Deduction reaches a conclusion by starting with a general principle or universal truth (a major premise) and applying to a specific case (a minor premise). i. Often structured as a syllogism ii. Syllogisms use a major premise and minor premise to reach a necessary conclusion 2. Example 1 - i. Major Premise: Celebrities are role models for the young. ii. Minor Premise: Lindsay Lohan is a celebrity. iii. Conclusion: Lindsay Lohan is a role model for young people. 3. The strength of deductive logic relies on the truth of the first two premises. If they are both true then the conclusion is logically valid. 4. Example 2 - swap with example 1 i. Major Premise: Exercise contributes to better health ii. Minor Premise: yoga is a type of exercise iii. Conclusion: Yoga contributes to better health 5. The conclusion is logically valid... but is it true? i. One could argue the premise of whether it is true or not 6. Example 3 - i. Major Premise: Women are poor drivers ii. Minor Premise: Ellen is a woman iii. Conclusion: Ellen is a poor driver 7. Syllogisms can be great at breaking down stereotypes and exposing basic thinking and faulty logic.

• Though they are sometimes used separately, they are most often found in argument essays • The Declaration of Independence uses both

1. Definition - An effective tool at uncovering the assumptions that underlie an argument. 2. Six Elements - i. Claim - An arguable assertion ii. Support (evidence) -Proof or validity of argument iii. Warrant (assumption) - Necessarily shared by the speaker and the audience. This is similar to the minor premise of a syllogism. If the speaker and audience do not share the same assumption, all the evidence in the world will not convince them. iv. Backing - Further assurances or data without which the assumption would lack authority or meaning. v. Qualifier -When used, this tempers the claim a bit. (Usually, arguably, maybe, probably , in most cases, mostly)

This gives voice to objection or counterarguments.

i. Because (evidence), therefore (claim), since (assumption), on account of (backing), unless (reservation). ii. Because it is raining, therefore I should take my umbrella, since it will keep me dry. 1. Backing would be "on account that the material is waterproof." 2. Reservation might be "unless there is a hole in it." 3. In this case, both are so obvious they don't need to be stated.

A. Argument: A process of reasoned inquiry and rational discourse. Persuasive discourse that is coherent and moves from claim to conclusion. B. Claim: (assertion, proposition) states the argument's main idea or position. Must be arguable. C. Rogerian Argument: Based on the assumption that a full understanding of an opposing position is essential to responding to it persuasively and refuting it in an accommodating, rather than alienating way.

A. Claims of Fact: Asserts that something is true or not. Facts become arguable when they are questioned, raise controversy, or challenge people's beliefs. "New" facts can challenge "old" facts. B. Claims of Value: Asserts that something is good or bad, right or wrong, desirable or undesirable. Often a matter of taste or personal judgment. A writer often establishes specific criteria or standards. C. Claims of Policy: Proposes a change. Local, national, or a change in attitude/viewpoint. Often begins with a definition of a problem (fact), explains why it's a problem (value), and then proposes a change.

A. Closed Thesis: States the main idea and also previews the major points to follow. It limits the number of points and is therefore "closed." Gay marriage is a contested topic because of conservative ideas, laws in place, and the social normal. B. Open Thesis: In longer essay, one may have 5, 6, or more points and will therefore not spell those out in the thesis statement. The popularity of the Harry Potter series demonstrates that simplicity trumps complexity when it comes to the tastes of American readers. Carl is super cool because he demonstrates extremely amazing characteristics when it comes to the tastes of Americans. C. Counterargument Thesis: This thesis provides a summary of the counterargument (usually qualified by although or but) immediately before the writer's thesis. This can seem stronger and more reasonable. Can also make a more seamless transition to the concession and refutation later in essay. Although Zach's vocabulary may seem spectacular and immense, it has no meaning because he simply looks up definitions online.

A. First Hand Evidence: i. Personal Experience - something you have personally been through. This can add to an appeal to pathos. ii. Anecdote - stories about other people you have observed or heard. This also can add to an appeal to pathos. iii. Current Events - using local, national, or global events to support a claim. B. Second-Hand Evidence: i. Historical Information - verifiable facts known from research & reading. This helps establish a writer's ethos. ii. Expert Opinion - bolstering your viewpoints by using an "expert." Someone who has published research or whose career in built in the subject can be an expert source. iii. Quantitative Evidence - includes things represented in numbers or data. These could be statistics, polls, census information , or other similar pieces of evidence. These appeals to logos.

A. Fallacies of Relevance: Vulnerabilities or weaknesses in argument. Usually an error in the use of evidence to support a claim. Weak arguments break down if the evidence fails. i. Red Herring - A speaker skips to a new topic and irrelevant topic in order to avoid the topic of discussion ii. Ad Hominem - A common type of Red Herring. Switching from the argument at hand to the character of the other speaker. iii. Faulty Analogy - An analogy that focuses on irrelevant or inconsequential similarities between two things. iv. Appeal to faulty authority - When someone who has no expertise to speak on an issue is used as an "expert" or "authority."

B. Fallacies of Accuracy: i. Straw Man - This is the most common fallacy of accuracy. A speaker choose a deliberately poor oversimplified example in order to easily ridicule (or knock down) an opponent's argument ii. Either/Or -A speaker presents two extreme options as the only possible choices. iii. False Dilemma - Latin "after which therefore because of which." Basically correlation does not equal causation. Just because something came first, does not mean it caused what came after. C. Fallacies of (In)sufficiency: i. Hasty Generalization - There is not enough evidence to support a particular conclusion. "Smoking isn't bad for you; my aunt smoked a pack a day for 30 years and lived to be 90 years old." ii. Circular Reasoning - Repeating the claim as a way of proving evidence. "You can't give me a C; I'm an A student!" iii. Ad Populm (Bandwagon Appeal) - Everybody is doing it so it must be a good thing.