Apush chapters 1-22
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Columbian Exchange
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Christopher Columbus reached the Americas. The Columbian Exchange was a combination of the Old and New Worlds after 1492, with the exchanging of goods, crops, animals, and diseases. With Columbus's discovery came an economic system between Europe, Africa, and the New World.
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Spanish Armada
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Philip II of Spain used his imperial gains to amass an "Invincible Armada" against the English. Spain was well colonized, as where England was not. In 1588 the Spanish invaded the English Channel, where the English defeated the Spanish. The Spanish loss would soon lead to the downfall of their empire.
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Jamestown
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The Virginia Company of London received a charter from King James I of England for a settlement in the New World. In 1606 the Virginia Company's ships landed near Chesapeake Bay where Indians attacked them. Finally, they settled in a location on the banks of James River, named in honor of King James I, later becoming known as Jamestown on May 24, 1607.
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John Winthrop
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An educated immigrant of the Bay Colony. He became the colony's first governor, where he served for nineteen years. With the help of this skilled settler the Massachusetts Bay Colony flourished rapidly with fur trading, fishing, and shipbuilding, setting the foundation for a thriving and holy society.
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Fundamental Orders of Connecticut
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A document drafted by the settlers of the new Connecticut River colony in 1639. It was a modern constitution establishing a democratically government. Essential features were later borrowed by Connecticut for its colonial charter and constitution
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Dominion of New England
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A union created by royal authority in 1686 including all of New England, New York and East and West Jersey. It aimed its purpose towards colonial defense as well as navigation laws. Under the control of Sir Edmund Andros, taxes were pursued, meetings were ruined, and heavy restrictions were placed. With the Glorious Revolution, the Dominion of New England collapsed.
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New England Confederation
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The alliance of four colonies, the two Massachusetts colonies (the Bay Colony and Plymouth) and the two Connecticut colonies (New Haven and valley settlements) in 1643. They binded together to form a defense against the Indians, French, and the Dutch. It was one of the first steps toward colonial unity.
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"Headright" System
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An employment under both Virginia and Maryland, encouraging the importation of servant workers. Whoever paid the passage of a laborer received fifty acres of land. Many began to invest in this as a way to acquire landownership
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Bacon's Rebellion
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Led by Nathaniel Bacon, a twenty-nine-year-old planter, a thousand Virginians broke out of control in response to William Berkley's refusal to protect backcountry settlers from Indian attacks. They set out to take revenge on the Indians and chased Berkeley from Jamestown
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Slave Codes
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1662. Slave codes made blacks and their children the property for life of their white masters. They were not aloud to read or write. Conversion to Christianity would not qualify a slave for freedom. Laws were beginning to be made on a racial basis and racial discrimination began
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Half-Way Covenant
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A modified "covenant" arranged by ministers in 1662. This would admit to baptism, but not "full communion", weakening the distinction between the "elect" and the others. Soon the church widened and there were no longer any "elects".
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Great Awakening
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A religious movement that was first ignited in the 1730s, in Northampton, Massachusetts by Jonathan Edwards. He emphasized believing in salvation through good works and affirmed the need for dependence on God's grace. George Whitefield emphasized direct, emotive spirituality.
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Albany Plan of Union
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Proposed by Benjamin Franklin at the Albany Congress in 1754. It was a union made to keep the Iroquois loyal to the British during the war. It was suppose to bring colonial unity. Albany delegates adopted the plan but colonists did not; to them it did not give them enough independence, but to British officials it gave too much
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Mercantilism
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A system that justified the British control over the colonies. Mercantilists believed that wealth was power and that a country's economic wealth was measured by the amount of gold and silver in its treasury. The country needed to export more than it imported. The settlers were regarded more or less as tenants. They were expected to produce tobacco and other products needed in England Parliament passed laws to govern the system - navigation law of 1650.
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Radical Whigs
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18th century British political commentators that shaped American political thought. They feared the threat to liberty posed by the arbitrary power of the monarch and his ministers relative to elected representatives in Parliament. They emphasized corruption of society as well as reminded the colonists of their liberties.
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Stamp Act
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1775. Parliament requires the colonists to pay for stamps on documents essential to life. The main purpose was to raise money for military troops. The colonists formed the Stamp Act Congress to repeal it; in 1766 Parliament repealed the Stamp Act.
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Boston Massacre
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: March 5, 1770, sixty townspeople taunted a squad of redcoats. With the killing of a little boy days prior to this, the Bostonians were still angry. In response to this the troops opened fire and killed or wounded eleven citizens. John Adams became the attorney of the soldiers, with only two of the redcoats found guilty.
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Boston Tea Party
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December 16, 1773 a hundred Bostonians smashed 342 chests of tea, dumping it into the Atlantic. The tea act of 1773 was to save the British East Indian Company. After the destruction of the tea, the British passed the Intolerable Acts to reassert power.
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Quebec Act
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After the French and Indian War, the English had claim the Quebec Region, a French-speaking colony. The Quebec Act, passed in 1774, allowed the French Colonist to go back freely to their own customs - access to the Catholic religion freely. It extended to Quebec Region north and south into the Ohio River Valley, all creating more tension between the colonists and the British, which lead to the American Revolution.
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The Association
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A document produced by the Continental Congress in 1775 that called for a complete boycott of British goods. This included non-importation, non- Exportation and non-consumption. It was the closest approach to a written constitution yet from the colonies.
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Second Continental Congress
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May 10, 1775. Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, and John Hancock. The Congress took on governmental duties - uniting all the colonies for the war effort, as well as selecting George Washington as Commander In Chief. They encouraged the colonies to set themselves up as states. On July 4, 1776 they adopted the Declaration of Independence.
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Olive Branch Petition
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Adopted by the Continental Congress in July 1775. It professed American loyalty to the crown and tried to prevent future hostilities. King George III proclaimed the colonies in rebellion and hired Hessians to crush them.
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Common Sense
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Written in 1776, by Thomas Paine, called for the colonists to realize their mistreatment and push for independence from England. "Nowhere in the physical universe did the smaller heavenly body control the larger one." In other words, Britain should not control America. The pamphlet sold a total of 120,000 copies within a few months.
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Saratoga
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The British focused on New York, Philadelphia, and the Hudson River. On October 17, 1776, Burgoyne, the British chief, surrendered to the American general Horatio Gates. The victory of this battle helped ensure the alliance with French, later leading to American independence.
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Franco-American Alliance of 1778
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France, still angry from their defeat during the seven years war, wanted revenge on Britain. The French alliance was possible once the Americans captured a British invasion army at Saratoga in October 1777. France and Spain allied with the colonists, providing guns, weapons, and equipment.
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Treaty of Fort Stanwix
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The Oneidas and the Tuscararas sided with the Americans while the Senecas, Mohawks, Cayugas, and the Ononda sided with the British. The British along with the Indian alliances of the British, ravaged areas of New York and Pennsylvania until stopped in 1779 by the American force. In 1784, he first treaty between the United States and an Indian Nation was created. Under the terms, the Indians ceded most of their land.
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Yorktown
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British general Cornwallis fell back to Chesapeake Bay at Yorktown to await seaborne supplies and reinforcement. Accompanied by Roger chambeaus French army, Washington beset the British by land, while de Grasse blockaded them by sea after the fleet. On October 19, 1781, Cornwallis surrendered his entire force.
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Treaty of Paris of 1783
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In 1783, the British recognized the independence of the United States. It granted boundaries, which stretched from the Mississippi on the West, to the Great Lakes on the north, and to Spanish Florida on the south. The Yankees retained a share of Newfoundland. It greatly upset the Canadians.
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Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom
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The struggle for divorce between religion and government was acted upon in 1786. Thomas Jefferson and his co-reformers, including Baptists, won a victory with this passage. Proposed by the Virginia legislature prohibiting state support for religious institutions and recognizing freedom of worship. It served as a model for religion clause of the first amendment.
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Civic virtue
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The notion that democracy depended on the unselfish commitment of each citizen to the public good. In other words personal interests were over ruled by common good. People should give up their rights for the common good - a republican ideology. In a republic, people express this through voting.
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Republican Motherhood
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It was believed that woman portrayed vitreous citizenry, entrusting them with the moral education of the young. The selfless devotion of a mother to her was family was regarded as proper republican behavior. Mothers were thus promoted o the special keepers of the nations conscience. Women were given more educational opportunities as well.
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Articles of Confederation
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The Articles of Confederation were adopted by Congress in 1777, as well as translated into French after the Battle of Saratoga. It was the first "constitution" governing the Untied States after the Revolution. The legislative branch (Congress) had no power to regulate commerce or forcibly collect taxes and there was no national executive or judicial branch. The main purpose was to convince France that America had a genuine government. In 1781, all thirteen states ratified it. It was an important stepping-stone towards the present constitution because without it the states would never have consented to the Constitution.
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Land Ordinance of 1785
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It provided that the acreage of the Old Northwest should be sold and that the proceeds should be used to help pay the nations debt. The vast area was to be surveyed before sale and settlement, leading to lawsuits. It was divided equally into townships and sold for federal income. It promoted education, for the sixteenth section was benefited towards schooling. This ended confusing legal disagreements over land as well.
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Northwest Ordinance of 1787
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Governed the Old Northwest in 1787. This addressed the problem of how the nation would handle the colonies. The solution consisted of two territorial stages, during which the area would be subordinated to the federal government. Once 60,000 people inhabited a territory then congress would admit it as a state. The original thirteen colonies were charters. Slavery was prohibited in these Northwest Territories. This plan worked so good it became the foundation for other frontier areas.
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Shays's Rebellion
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1786- Led by Captain Daniel Shays, a Revolutionary war veteran. An uprising that flared in western Massachusetts. Impoverished backcountry farmers, many of them Revolutionary war veterans, were losing their farms through mortgage foreclosures and tax delinquencies. They demanded cheap paper money, lighter taxes, and a suspension of mortgage fore closures. Hundreds of angry agitators attempted to enforce these demands. Massachusetts's authorities, supported by wealthy citizens, raised a small army under General Lincoln.
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Constitutional Convention
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Control of commerce lead to the constitutional convention. In 1786, Virginia called for a convention at Annapolis, Maryland. Nine states appointed delegates, but only five were actually represented. Alexander Hamilton engineered the adoption of calling Congress to summon a convention to meet in Philadelphia next year and bolster the Articles of Confederation. Rhode Island did not participate.
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Convention of 1818
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Britain and the United States agreed to the 49th parallel as the northern boundary of the Louisiana Territory between Lake of the Woods and the Rocky Mountains. The two nations also agreed to joint occupation of the Oregon country for ten years.
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Great Compromise
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Compromise resolved that there would be representation by population in the House of Representatives for larger states, and equal representation would exist in the Senate for smaller states. Each state, regardless of size, would have 2 senators. All tax bills and revenues would originate in the House. This compromise combined the needs of both large and small states and formed a fair and sensible resolution to their problems.
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Commerce Compromise
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Called for a demand of sound money and the protection of private property. The members of the convention agreed that there would be a stronger government with three branches. The new system called for checks and balances as well.
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Antifederalist
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People who opposed the federal government/federalists in 1787. They disagreed with the Constitution because they believed people's rights were being taken away without a Bill of Rights. Also they did not agree with annual elections and the non-existence of God in the government. (strict)
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Federalists
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People who favored the federal government. The majority lived in the settled areas along the seaboard. Overall, they were wealthier, more educated, and better organized than the anti-federalists. Among them were George Washington and Benjamin Franklin. They controlled the press in America during the 1780s.
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The Federalist Papers
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The Federalist was a series of articles written in New York newspapers as a source of propaganda for a stronger central government. The articles, written by Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison, were a way for the writers to express their belief that it is better to have a stronger central government. The papers turned out to be a penetrating commentary written on the Constitution.
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Bill of Rights
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Many antifederalists criticized the Constitution, for it failed to guarantee individual rights. In 1791, a necessary number of states adopted the first ten amendments to the Constitution. It guaranteed civil liberties such as freedom of religion, speech, and press; the right to bear arms and be tried by jury; and the right to assemble and petition the government for redress of grievances. It also prohibits cruel and unusual punishments. Written by James Madison.
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Judiciary Act of 1789
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Outlines the judiciary branch. The first Congress created effective federal courts under the Judiciary Act of 1789. The act organized the Supreme Court, with a chief justice and five associates, as well as a federal district and circuit courts, and established the office of attorney general. New Yorker John Jay became the first chief justice of the United States.
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Whiskey Rebellion
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A rebellion, which flared up in southwestern Pennsylvania in 1794, challenging the national government. Hamilton's high taxes were regarded as a burden on an economic necessity and a medium of exchange. Defiant distillers erected whiskey poles, and raised the cry "Liberty and No Excise." Washington crushed the rebellion with excessive force, proving the strength of the national governments power in its military, but was condemned for using a "sledge hammer to crush a gnat."
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French Revolution
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The French Revolution began in 1789 with some nonviolent restrictions on the king, but became more hostile in 1792 when France declared war on Austria. Seeking help from America, the French pointed to the Franco-American alliance of 1778. Not wanting to get involved for fear of damage to the trade business, Washington gave the Neutrality Proclamation, which made America neutral. This led to arguments between Americans and French. After fighting with the French over such things as the Jay Treaty, the Americans came to peace with France in 1800.
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Citizen Genet
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He was a representative of the French Republic who came to America in order to recruit Americans to help fight in the French Revolution. Genet landed in Charleston, South Carolina around 1793 after the outbreak of war between France and Britain. He threatened to overthrow the government. Later he decides to stay in the United States and becomes a citizen. It also showed how the government was maturing.
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Neutrality Proclamation
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After the outbreak of war between Britain and France, Washington issued the Neutrality Proclamation in 1793. This proclaimed the government's official neutrality in the conflict, and urged citizens to be impartial to both camps. Washington's proclamation proved to be a prop of spreading Isolationist tradition. It was very controversial and the pro- French Jefferson's were enraged, especially because Washington did not consult Congress.
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Jay's Treaty
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A treaty, which offered little concessions from Britain to the U.S. and greatly disturbed the Jeffersonians. He was able to get Britain to say they would evacuate the chain of posts on U.S. soil and pay damages for recent seizures of American ships. The British, however, would not promise to leave American ships alone in the future, and they decided that the Americans still owed British merchants for pre-Revolutionary war debts. The UK was asked to leave forts in Ohio, and the US received most favored nation status, receiving extra benefits.
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Pinckney's Treaty
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treaty of 1795 with Spain granted the Americans virtually everything they demanded. This included free navigation of Mississippi, the right of deposit at New Orleans, and the large disputed territory of western Florida. It also helped America to have unexpected diplomatic success.
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Treaty of Greenville
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In the Treaty of Greenville, signed in August 1795, the confederacy gave up vast tracts of the Old Northwest, including most of present-day Indiana and Ohio. In exchange the Indians received lump-sum payment of 20,000$, an annual annuity of 9,000$, the right to hunt the lands they had ceded, and, most important, what they hoped was recognition of their sovereign status. It was an unequal treaty but it put limits on the ability of the US in deciding the fate of Indian peoples.
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XYZ Affair
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In 1797 the XYZ Affair sent a wave of war hysteria sweeping through the United States, catching up even President Adams. Diplomatic conflict between France and the United States when American envoys to France were asked to pay a hefty bribe for the privilege of meeting with the French foreign minister. Many in the U.S. called for war against France, while American sailors and privateers waged an undeclared war against French merchant in the Caribbean.
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Convention of 1800
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A memorable treaty signed in Paris. France agreed to annul the twenty-two-year old marriage of convenience, but as a kind of alimony the U.S. agreed to pay the damage of claims of American shippers. It ended the nations only peacetime military alliance for a century and a half. The difficulties posed by Americans peacetime alliance with France contributed to America's longstanding opposition to entangling alliances with foreign powers.
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Alien & Sedition Acts
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It Raised the residence requirement for American citizenship from 5 to 14 years. Alien Act-gave the President the power in peacetime to order any alien out of the country. Alien Enemies Act-permitted the President in wartime to jail aliens when he wanted to. No arrests made under the Alien Act or the Alien Enemies Act. The Sedition Act-key clause provided fines and jail penalties for anyone guilty of sedition. Was to remain in effect until the next Presidential inauguration.
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Revolution of 1800
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Jefferson claimed that the election of 1800 was a "revolution" comparable to that of 1776. Jefferson meant that his election represented a return to what he considered the original spirit of Revolution. To him, Hamilton and Adams betrayed the ideals of 1776 and 1787. Jefferson wanted to restore republican experiment, as well as check the growth of the government power, and halt the decay of virtue that had set in under Federalist rule.
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Marbury v. Madison
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1803; Secretary of State, James Madison held up one of John Adams' "Midnight Judges" appointments. The appointment was for a Justice of the Peace position for William Marbury. Marbury sued. Fellow Hamiltonian and Chief Justice John Marshall dismissed Marbury's suit, avoiding a political showdown and magnifying the power of the Court. This case cleared up controversy over who had final say in interpreting the Constitution: the states did not, the Supreme Court did. This is judicial review.
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Louisiana Purchase
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In 1803 Thomas Jefferson purchased 828,000 square miles of land for 15 million dollars from Napoleon the leader of France. The land mass stretched from the Gulf of Mexico all the to Rocky Mountains and Canada. The purchase of this land sprouted national pride and ensured expansion.
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Chesapeake Affair
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In 1807, Britain's determination was highlighted. A royal frigate overhauled a U.S. frigate, the Chesapeake, about ten miles off the coast of Virginia. The British captain demanded the surrender of four alleged deserters. London never claimed the right to seize sailors from foreign warship, and the American commander refused. The British fired three devastating broadsides, killing three Americans and wounding eighteen. This is the most famous example of impressments, in which the British seized American sailors and forced them to serve on British ships.
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Non-Intercourse Act
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This measure reopened trade with all the nations of the world, except the two most important, Britain and France. Economic coercion continued to be the policy of the Jeffersonian from 1809 to 1812, when the nation finally plunged into war.
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Tecumseh
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Tecumseh and his brother Tenskwatawa began to weld together a confederacy of all the tribes east of the Mississippi, inspiring a vibrant movement of Indian unity and cultural renewal. Their followers gave up textile clothing for traditional buckskin garments. Tecumseh rejected whites concept of "ownership" and urged his supporters to never cede land to whites unless all Indians agreed.
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Treaty of Ghent
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The treaty of Ghent, signed on Christmas Eve, 1814,was an armistice. Both sides agreed to stop fighting and to restore conquered territory. No mention was made of those grievances for America had ostensibly fought: the Indian menace, search and seizure, Orders in Council, impressments, and confiscations. They are proof that the Americans had not managed to defeat the British.
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Hartford Convention
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In 1814, when the capture of New Orleans seemed imminent, Massachusetts issued a call for a convention at Harford, Connecticut. The states of Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island dispatched dull delegations; neighboring New Hampshire and Vermont sent partial representation. This group of men, twenty-six in all, met in secrecy and discussed their grievances and seaked redress for their wrongs.
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Rush-Bagot Agreement
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In 1817 the Rush-Bagot agreement between Britain and the United States severely limited naval armament on the lakes. It was a first step in the full demilitarization of the U.S. -Canadian border, completed in the 1870s.
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American System
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A plan proposed by Henry Clay, in 1824, to work on economic reform. Henry Clay wanted to help stabilize the country and begin the pursuit for worked recognition. It consisted of three main parts: a strong banking system, a protective tariff, and a federally funded network of roads and canals. These parts delivered essential factors such as credit, a flourishing manufacturing, and revenues. This provided transportation for the exchange of raw materials and manufactured goods.
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Era of Good Feelings
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The Era of Good Feelings consisted during the presidency of James Monroe in1816. People portrayed good feelings caused by the nationalistic pride after the Battle of New Orleans and second war for Independence with British. The acute issues of tariff, the bank, internal improvements, and public lands lead to a troubled period. Sectionalism was forming and conflict over slavery heightened. The Missouri Compromise had a very dampening effect on the good feelings.
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Tallmadge Amendment
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: Rivalry between the slave South and free North over west control beckoned, and Missouri asked for admission as a slave state. The compromise stated that no more slaves should be brought into Missouri. It also provided for the gradual emancipation of children born to slave parents already there. Southerners saw this as an ominous threat to sectional balance. It was eventually defeated in the Senate.
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Missouri Compromise
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1820; a compromise that lasted thirty-four years and was a vital formative period in the life of the Republic, as well as a shaky compact of the states. Congress admitted Missouri as a slave state and Maine was admitted as a separate states. This permitted balance between the North and South, and all future bondages of slavery were prohibited in the remainder of the Louisiana Purchase. The South won the prize of Missouri as an unrestricted slave state and the North won the concession that Congress forbids slavery in remaining territories. A majority of southern congressmen voted against the compromise, and it put a damp on the Era of the Good feelings.
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The Marshall Court
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Chief Justice John Marshal bolstered the power of the federal government at the expense of the states. A notable case was McCulloch v. Maryland (1819), where the suit involved an attempt by the State of Maryland to destroy a branch of the Bank of the United States by imposing taxes. John Marshall declared the bank constitutional and strengthened federal authority as he denied right of Maryland to tax the bank. He affirmed "that the power to tax involves the power to destroy" and "that a power to create implies a power to preserve". This demonstrated loose construction and argued that the consent of the people permitted the government to act for their benefit.
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Anglo-American Convention
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The Monroe administration negotiated this Convention of 1818 with Britain. This pact permitted Americans to share the coveted Newfoundland fisheries with their Canadian cousins, also fixing the northern limits of Louisiana along Lake of the Woods to the Rocky Mountains. This treaty provided for a ten-year joint occupation of the untamed Oregon Country, without the surrender of the rights or claims of either America or Britain.
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Adams-Onis Treaty
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A treaty also known as the Florida Purchase Treaty of 1819. Spain ceded Florida as well as the Spanish claims to Oregon, in exchange for America's abandonment of equally claims to Texas, soon to become part of independent Mexico. The vague boundary of Louisiana was made toward the Rockies to the forty-second parallel and then to the Pacific, dividing Oregon from Spanish holdings.
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Monroe Doctrine
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an expression of the post-1812 nationalism energizing the U.S. Proved to be the most famous of the long-lived offspring of that nationalism. Might have been called the Self-Defense Doctrine. Where & When: Incorporated into President Monroe's annual message to Congress in 1823. Its two basic features were:(1) Non-Colonization (2) Non-Intervention. Colonization's era had ended and England and other foreign powers needed to keep their monarchial systems out of the U.S. Old World powers could not gain any more settlements. The U.S.
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Russo-American Treaty
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Monroe's Doctrine and message did not have much contemporary significance. Before this, the tsar formally created the Russ- American treaty of 1824, which fixed the southernmost limits at the line of 54 40' - the present southern tip of Alaska panhandle.
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Corrupt bargain
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1824; immediately after John Quincy Adams became President, he appointed Henry Clay as Secretary of State. Jacksonians were furious because all former Secretaries of State became Presidents. This "corrupt bargain" occurred after the Election of 1824 when Andrew Jackson had the most electoral votes, but not majority. Then, Henry Clay (having the least of the electoral votes) gave them to John Q. Adams, giving him the majority and making him President. Jacksonians question whether John Q. Adams made Henry Clay Sec. of State for payback in giving his votes.
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Doctrine of Nullification
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Nullies" tried to muster the necessary two-thirds vote for nullification in the South Carolina legislature. With the tariff of 1832, southern demands were not met and a showdown between President Jackson and the South Carolina legislature began. This declared the 1832 tariff null and void in the states and well as threatened secessions if the federal government tried to collect duties. It was resolved by a compromise negotiated by Henry Clay in 1833 - a reduced tariff of about 10 percent over a period of eight years.
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Indian Removal Act
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Jackson believed that the Indians could preserve their native cultures in the wide-open West. His policy led to the forced uprooting of more than 100,000 Indians. In 1830, Congress passed the Indian Removal Act, providing for the transplanting of all Indian tribes then resident east of the Mississippi. During this, countless Indians died on forced marches - the Cherokees. The "permanent" frontier lasted about fifteen years.
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Bank War
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The Bank War erupted in 1832, when Daniel Webster and Henry Clay presented Congress with a bill to renew the Bank of the United States' charter. The charter was not set to expire until 1836, but Clay pushed for renewal four years early to make it an election issue in 1836. Clay's scheme was to ram a charter bill through Congress and then to White House. Jackson vetoed the charter and declared the monopolistic bank to be unconstitutional. Jackson was claiming for full power and believed the legislative and judicial branches were partners.
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Panic of 1837
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: The panic of 1837 was caused by the Jacksonian finance, including the Bank War and the Specie Circular, and failures of wheat crops. This economic crisis was triggered by Jackson's efforts to curb over speculation on western lands and transportation improvements. In response, president Martin Van Buren proposed the "Divorce Bill" which pulled treasury funds out of the banking system all together, contracting the credit supply. With this the government could lock its surplus money in vaults and remain safe.
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Lone Star Rebellion
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In 1836 the Texans declared their independence, unfurled their Lone Star flag, and named Sam Houston commander in chief. Santa Anna swept ferociously into Texas, and trapped a band of nearly two hundred Texans at Alamo. Later a band of about four hundred surrendered and defeated Mexican volunteers at Goliad. All these operations further delayed Mexican advance and galvanized American opposition.
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Self-Reliance
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Ralph Waldo Emerson declared the popular lecture essay "Self Reliance", which struck as deeply responsive. Popular literature of the period abounded with portraits of unique, isolated figures like James Cooper's heroic Natty Bumppo and Herman Melville's restless Captain Ahab. The Jacksonian politics aimed to emancipate the lone wolf, enterprising businessperson.
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Know-Nothing
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"Nativists" agitated for rigid restrictions on immigration and naturalization and for laws authorizing the deportation of alien paupers. They also promoted a lurid literature of exposure, much fiction.
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Industrial Revolution
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The Igoals were to expedite production of goods and create an efficient factory system. It began in the 1750's in Britain with a group of inventors perfecting textile machines. These British developments eventually found their way into American Industry. Factories were made to work with the South's raw textiles and Industrialization started in the North because of its dense population, reliance of shipping, and its number of seaports. The rapid rivers of the North also provided power for turning the cogs of machines.
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Market Revolution
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A revolution that transformed a subsistence economy of scattered farms and tiny workshops into a national network of industry and commerce. Greater mechanization and more market-oriented economy raise new legal questions about winners and losers. It was a transformation from a disaggregated, subsistence economy to a nation mercial and industrial network.
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Commonwealth v. Hunt
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As unemployment spread, union membership shriveled, the supreme court ruled in the case of Commonwealth v Hunt that labor unions were not illegal conspiracies, provided that their methods were "honorable and peaceful". This decision did not legalize the strike overnight throughout the country but it was a significant signpost of the times. Trade unions still had a rocky row to hoe, stretching ahead for about a century, before they could meet management on relatively even terms.
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Cult of Domesticity
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The vast majority of workingmen were single. Upon marriage they they're paying jobs and took up their new work as wives and mothers. In the home they were enshrined in a cult of domesticity, a widespread cultural creed that glorified the customary functions of the homemaker. Married women commanded immense moral power, and they increasingly made decisions that altered the character of the family itself. This led to the traditional "women's sphere and love not "arrangement" -improvements of 19th century life.
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Transportation Revolution
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The transportation revolution of consisted of changes in commerce and communication, with the building of canals and railroad tracks, from the East to across the Alleghenies. By the eve of the Civil war, a new economy had emerged, which spelled productivity and profits in the factory. The south raised cotton for export to New England and Britain; the West grew grain and livestock to feed East and Europe; the east made machines and textiles for the South and West.
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American Temperance Society
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The American Temperance Society was formed in Boston in 1826. A thousands local groups sprang into existence, imploring drunkiners to sign the temperance pledge as well as organize children's clubs, known as the "Cold Water Army." Temperance crusaders also made effective use of pictures, pamphlets, and lurid lectures, some of which were reformed drunkards. The main purpose was to limit alcohol consumption.
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25. Seneca Falls Convention
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Unflinching feminists met in 1848 in a memorable Woman's Rights Convention at New York. The defiant Stanton read a "Declaration of Sentiments," which in the spirit of the Declaration of Independence declared, "All men and women are equal." One resolution formally demanded the ballot for females. Amid scorn and denunciation from press and pulpit, the Seneca Falls meeting launched the modern women's rights movement.
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Transcendentalism
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The Transcendentalist movement of the 1830's consisted of mainly modernizing the old puritan beliefs. This system of beliefs owed a lot to foreign influences, and usually resembled the philosophies of John Locke. Transcendentalists believed that truth transcended the body through the senses; Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau were two of the more famous transcendentalists.
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Oneida Community
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The Oneida Community was founded in New York in 1848. It practiced free love, birth control, and the eugenic selection of parents to produce superior offspring. This enterprise flourished for more than thirty years, largely because its artisans made superior steel traps and Oneida Community Plate. Utopian communities reflected the reformist's spirit of age.
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Mormons
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in 1830, Joseph Smith, a rugged visionary reported that he received golden plates from an angel. When deciphered, they constituted the Book of Mormon, and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. It was a Native American product, a new religion, destined to spread its influence worldwide.
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Shakers
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Manu communistic experiments have been attempted, but with the competition democratic free enterprise and land, virtually all of them failed sooner of later. Among the longest-lived sects were the Shakers, founded in England in 1747 and brought to America in 1774 by Mother Ann Lee. She moved her tiny band of followers to upstate New York, The Shakers attained a membership of about six thousand in 1840, but since their monastic customs prohibited both marriage and sexual relations, they were extinct by 1940.
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Hudson River School
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During the nationalist upsurge after the War of 1812, American painters of portraits turned increasingly from human landscapes to romantic mirrorings of local landscapes. The Hudson River school excelled in this type of art. It was an American artistic movement that endured competition from the invention of a crude photography known as daguerreotype perfected in 1839 by Louis Daguerre.
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Utopian Movement
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More than forty communities of cooperative, communistic, or "communitarian" nature were set up. Seeking human betterment, a wetland and idealistic manufacturer, Robert Owen founded in 125 a communal society of about a thousand people. This was at New Harmony Indiana. Little harmony prevailed in the colony, which, in addition to hard-working visionaries, attracted radicals, theorists, and scoundrels. The colony sank in confusion and contradiction.
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Planter Aristocracy
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The planter aristocracy educated their children in the finest schools, and their money provided the leisure for study, reflection, and statecraft. The felt they needed to serve the public. However, it widened the gap between rich and poor and hampered tax-supported public education.
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Peculiar Institution
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During the 19th century gave euphemism for "slavery". The term was made to give slavery a good connotation. The Authority of the Bible and Aristotle's teachings supported this. It was a movement to abolish slavery from the North, while the south wanted proslavery whites. The south tried to stop the north from revealing the truth and violated the freedom of speech and press.
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Black Belt
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By 1860 most slaves were concentrated in black belt of the Deep South that stretched from South Carolina and Georgia into the new southwest states of Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana. Life was often rough and raw, and in general the lot of the slaves was harder here than in most areas of the Old South. With impressive resilience, blacks managed to sustain family life in slavery and most slaves were raised in a stable two-parent house.
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Nat Turner
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In 1831, a black preacher led an uprising that slaughtered about sixty Virginians, mostly women and children. This raised fears among white southerners of further uprisings. Reprisals were swift and bloody, and his rebellion as soon extinguished.
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American Colonization Society
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The American Colonization society was founded for the purpose of 1817 and 1822, the Republic of Liberia, on the fever stricken West African coast. It was established for former slaves, with the capital, Monrovia, after President Monroe.
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Abolition Movement
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Many societies and people set out to abolish slavery. The first was Lloyd Garrison, proclaiming he would not tolerate the use of slavery. Later the American Anit-Slavery Society became about, a group of dedicated abolitionist in 1833. The south wanted slavery as well as feared the uprising of slaves in rebellion and in the matter of stealing their jobs. By the 1850s many saw the South as the land of unfree and the home of hateful constitution.
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Gag Resolution
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The controversy over free people endangered free speech in the entire country. Piles of petitions poured in Congress from the antislavery reformers in 1836. The Gag Revolution required all such antislavery appeals to be tabled without debate. This attack on the right of the petition aroused John Quincy Adams, and he waged a successful eighth-year repeal.
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The Caroline Incident
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In 1837 Britain launched attacks on America for being a borrowing country, creating the panic of 1837, which led to an incident on the Canadian frontier. An American steamer, the Caroline, carried supplies to insurgents across the Niagara River when it was attacked by British force on the New York Shore, killing one American and sinking the ship. The invasion of American soil led to ineffective protests, and in 1840 a Canadian McLeod was indicted for murder for boasting in a tavern. He was later freed after establishing an alibi.
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Aroostook War
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During the 1840's the British were determined to build a defensive road westward from the seaport of Halifax to Québec - disputed territory; claimed also by Main under treaty of 1783. Both Maine and Canada entered the Aroostook River Valley where fights flared up and both sides summoned to the militia. Under Lord Ashburton and Daniel Webster compromise arose, allowing Americans to retain 7,000 square miles of the 12,000 square mile dispute. The British won the Halifax-Quebec route, but lost less land and adjusted the U.S- Canadians boundary further west, surrendering 6,500 square miles.
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54degrees 40'
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Oregon was claimed at one time or another by four nations: Spain, Russia, Britain, and the United States. Spain ceded this land to the United Sates in the Florida Treaty of 1819 while Russia retreated to the line of 54 40 by treaties of 1824 and 1825. British claims north of the Columbia River were based on prior discovery and exploration, on treaty rights, on actual occupation and on the Bay Company. Americans under Robert Grey discovered the Columbia River and their efforts were strengthened with the Lewis and Clark expedition as well as the settling of missionaries. "Joint occupation" was adopted pending future settlement and was regarded in the presidential election of 1844.
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Spot resolutions
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Proposed by Abraham Lincoln in the spring of 1846. After news from president James K. Polk that 16 American service men had been killed or wounded on the Mexican border in American territory, Abraham Lincoln, then a congressman from Illinois, proposed these resolutions to find out exactly on what spot the American soldier's blood had been shed. In Polk's report to congress the President stated that the American soldiers fell on American soil, but they actually fell on disputed territory that Mexico had historical claims to.
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Bear Flag Republic
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A revolt from Fort Devenworth to Santa Fe; 1846; John C. Fremont won California. Americans in California wanted to be independent of Mexican rule; thus, when the war with Mexico began these Californians revolted and established an independent republic;
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Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
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Trist and Scott, a chief clerk, arranged for an armistice with Santa Ana at a cost of $10,000. Thus Mexico sold the United States the entire southwest for 15 million dollars in agreement that the United States government would recognize the rights and religion of the Mexican inhabitants of this land. It was drawn up by Nicholas P. Trist and sent to congress. The anti slavery congressmen passed the treaty and signed it on February 2nd, 1848.
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Wilmot Proviso
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Disputes over whether Mexican territory won by America during the Mexican War should be free or a slave territory arose. A representative named David Wilmot introduced an amendment stating that any territory acquired from Mexico would be free. This amendment passed the House twice, but failed to ever pass in Senate. The "Wilmot Proviso", as it became known as, became a symbol of how intense dispute over slavery was in the U.S.
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Popular Sovereignty
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General Lewis Cass, a veteran of the War of 1812 was the reputed father of popular sovereignty. This doctrine stated that the sovereign people of a territory under the general principles of the Constitution should themselves determine the status of slavery. The public liked this because it accorded with the democratic tradition of self-determination. Politicians liked it because it seemed like a fair compromise between free-soilers' bid on the ban of slavery and the southern demands that Congress would protect slavery in territories.
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Free Soil Party
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anti-slavery men in the north, democrats, and Whigs organized The Free-Soil Party. They attracted industrialists who wanted the reduction of protective tariffs and appealed to Democrats resentful of the settling of part of Oregon. The Free-Soil Party was against slavery in the new territories. They also advocated federal aid for internal improvements and urged free government homesteads for settlers. This Free-Soil Party foreshadowed the emergence of the Republican Party.
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California Gold Rush
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The California Gold Rush attracted tens of thousands of people including lawless men accompanied by virtue less women. Robbery, claim jumping and murder were all the crimes resulted from this rush. A majority of Californians encouraged by President Taylor, drafted a constitution in 1849 that excluded slavery and applied to Congress for admission. California would thus bypass the usual territorial stage.
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Seventh of March Speech
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A speech by Daniel Webster urging the North to support the Compromise of 1850. Webster argued that the topography and climate would keep slavery from becoming entrenched in Mexican Cession territory and urged Northerners to male a; reasonable concessions to prevent disunion. This effort strengthened the union sentiment and was especially pleasing to the baking and commercial centers of the North, loosing millions of dollars by secession. Free-Soilers and abolitionists saw Webster as a traitor.
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Compromise of 1850
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This compromise signed by Millard Fillmore deals with disputed territory, and the controversy of whether California should join as a free state or slave state. California was admitted as a free state while Utah and New Mexico were opened to popular sovereignty. Slave trade was ended in Washington D.C and the fugitive slave law was introduced, setting high penalties for anyone who aided escaped slaves. The compromise gave the North an advantage in the Senate, but still angered them and the South; it did not settle dispute of slavery at all.
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Clayton-Bulwer Treaty
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Signed in 1850 by Great Britain and the United Sates, it provided that the two nations would jointly protect the neutrality of Central America. It also stipulated that neither power would seek to fortify or exclusively control any future isthmian waterway. Later revoked by the Hay-Pauncefote Treaty of 1901, which gave the United States control of the Panama Canal.
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Ostend Manifesto
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The secretary of state instructed the American ministers in Spain, England and France to prepare acquisition of Cuba. Meeting at Ostend, Belgium the three envoys drew-up a secret dispatch. This document urged the administration to offer $120 million for Cuba. Northern free-soilers were angered and the administration dropped its schemes towards Cuba.
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Treaty of Wanghia
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When Britain secured themselves with China, the United States called for Caleb Cushing, a lawyer, to secure concessions for the United States. On July 3,1844 Chinese diplomats signed the Treaty of Wanghia, which was the first formal diplomatic agreement between the United States and China. Cushing was interested in commerce and secured vital rights and privileges from the Chinese. "Most favored nation" afforded the United States all other trading terms accorded to other powers. This greatly expanded America's trade with the Chinese.
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Treaty of Kanagawa
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Commodore Mathew C. Perry prepared diligently for his mission of Japan - requesting free trade and friendly relations. In 1854, when Perry returned he persuaded the Japanese to sign the landmark Treaty of Kanagawa. It provided proper treatment of shipwrecked sailors, American coaling rights in Japan, and the establishment of consular relations. Perry cracked Japan's two-century shell of isolation wide open.
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Gadsden Purchase
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Mexico was the most desirable because it had the best railway route that ran slightly south of the Mexican border. Secretary of War Jefferson Davis arranged for James Gadsden to minister to Mexico. Gadsden negotiated with Santa Anna and in 1853; the treaty ceded to the United States the Gadsden Purchase for $10 million. This purchase enabled the South to claim the coveted railroad, but angered Northerners who objected to paying a huge sum for a desert.
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Kansas-Nebraska Act
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set forth in 1854, said that Kansas and Nebraska should come into the Union under popular sovereignty. Senator Stephen A. Douglas introduced it, and it pushed the country even closer the Civil War. This act ended the Missouri Compromise of 36 degrees 30' and was solely based on popular sovereignty. Overall it renewed the South hopes and outraged the North.
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Uncle Tom's Cabin
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Harriet Beecher Stowe - She was determined to awaken the North to the wickedness of slavery by focusing on its terrible inhumanity, especially the cruel splitting of families. No other novel in American history can be compared with it as a political force. TO millions, it made slavery appear almost as evil as it really was. Although this novel angered the South, who believed it was exaggerated, it left a profound impression on the north, motivating them to stop slavery.
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Lecompton Constitution
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In 1857 Kansas had enough people to apply for statehood on a popular-sovereignty basis. The proslavery forces devised a document known as the Lecompton Constitution. The people were not allowed to vote for or against the constitution as a whole, but for the constitution either "with slavery" or "against slavery." If voted against slavery, one of the provisions of the constitutions would protect the owners of slaves already in Kansas. Under Buchanan the outcome was a compromise that in effect, submitted the entire Lecompton Constitution to a popular vote, where Kansas remained a territory until 1861.
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Bleeding Kansas
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Senator Charles Sumner of Massachusetts was a leading abolitionist who condemned proslavery men and refereed insultingly to South Carolina. Preston S. Brooks of South Carolina on May 22, 1856, approached Sumner, sitting at the Senate desk, and pounded the orator with an eleven-ounce cane until it broke. Sumner fell bleeding and unconscious to the floor. The South encouraged Brooks while the North was aroused. The Sumner-Brooks clash and the ensuring reactions revealed how generously inflamed passions were becoming, North and South.
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Dred Scott
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Dred Scott, a black slave, had lived with his master for five years in Illinois and Wisconsin territory when he sued for freedom on the basis of his long residence on free soil. The Supreme Court ruled that Dred Scott was a black salve and not a citizen, hence could not sue in federal courts. The court then said it was a violation of the 5th amendment, stating that because a slave was property, he or he could be taken into any territory. Then the Court ruled that the Missouri Compromise was unconstitutional: Congress had no power to bam slavery in territories. The southerners were delighted and another wedge was driven between the northern and southern parties.
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Fort Sumter
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1861; Located in Charleston harbor, Lincoln decided to adopt a middle-of-the-road solution, notifying the South Carolinians that an expedition would be sent to provision the garrison, though to reinforce it. The cannon of the Carolinians opened fire on the fort, defeating the garrison. This assault on Fort Sumter provoked the North to a fighting pitch: the fort was lost, but the union was saved. This led to the call for 75,000 militiamen and a blockade of the Southern seaport.
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Election of 1860
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The Election of 1860 consisted of two elections: one in the south and one in the north. The Northern Democrats met in Baltimore, Maryland, and nominated Stephen A. Douglas; The Southern Democrats reconvened in Richmond, Virginia and nominated John C. Breckinridge; John Bell was also nominated as well as Abraham Lincoln, a Republican. Abraham Lincoln won the presidential election and with this came the terminating power of the South. John C. Calhoun succeeded from union under South Carolina and six more continued after - Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas.
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Harper's Ferry
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John Brown of bleeding Kansas devised a plan to invade the South, call upon slaves to rise, furnish them with arms, and establish a kind of black free state as a sanctuary. When he arrived in western Virginia, at Harpers Ferry he seized the federal arsenal in 1859 and killed seven people. Under Robert E. Lee he was seized and then convicted of murder and treason. The south saw Brown as a murder while the north saw him as a martyr. John Brown of bleeding Kansas devised a plan to invade the South, call upon slaves to rise, furnish them with arms, and establish a kind of black free state as a sanctuary. When he arrived in western Virginia, at Harpers Ferry he seized the federal arsenal in 1859 and killed seven people. Under Robert E. Lee he was seized and then convicted of murder and treason. The south saw Brown as a murder while the north saw him as a martyr.
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Anaconda Plan
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A plan proposed to subdue the succeeding states. The plan emphasized the blockade of the Southern ports, and called for an advance down the Mississippi River to cut the South in two. The plan consisted of two steps, first, all ports in the seceding states were to be rigorously blockaded; second, and a strong column of perhaps 80,000 men should use the Mississippi River as a highway to thrust completely through the Confederacy.
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Trent Affair
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1861; A union warship cruising on the seas North of Cuba stopped a British mail steamer, the Trent and forcibly removed two Confederate diplomats bound for Europe. Britons were outraged and the London Foreign Office prepared an ultimatum demanding surrender of the prisoners and an apology. Lincoln saw the prisoners as "white elephants" and released them.
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The Alabama
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A major crisis with Britain regarding the unneutral building in Britain of Confederate commerce-raiders. The vessels were not warships within British law because they left their shipyards unarmed. The Alabama escaped in 1862 to the Portuguese Azores, and there took on weapons and a crew from two British ships that followed it. The Alabama captured over sixty vessels, but was destroyed in 1864 by a Union cruiser. Charles Francis Adams declared that allowing such ships to be built was a dangerous precedent that might someday be used against them and in 1871 Britain offered 15.5 million for damages caused by wartime commerce-raiders.
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Laird Rams
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1863; two confederate warships being constructed in the shipyard of John Laird and Sons in Great Britain. They were designed to destroy the ships of the Union navy with their iron rams and large-caliber guns. Minister Adams warned that war would be provoked if the rams were released. The London government bought the two ships for the Royal Navy, disappointing Confederates. This lead to the repent of Britain, who offered $15.5 million for d amages caused by wartime commerce-raiders.
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Emperor Maximilian
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Emperor Napoleon III proclaimed Maximilian emperor of Mexico in 1864, which was a violation of the Monroe Doctrine. Napoleon believed the Union would collapse and thus America would be too weak to enforce its "hands-off" policy in the Western Hemisphere. The Washington government gave aid to the resistance movement headed by Benito Juarez. Secretary of State Seward prepared to march south, and Napoleon took "French leave" in 1867, when Maximilian died before a Mexican firing squad as well.
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Writ of habeas corpus
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: A petition requiring law enforcement officers to present detained individuals before the court to examine the legality of the arrest. It protected individuals from arbitrary state action. Abraham Lincoln suspended this so that anti-Unionists might be summarily arrested. In taking this step, he defied a dubious ruling by the chief justice that the safeguards of habeas corpus could be set-aside only by the authorization of Congress.
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New York Draft Riots
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A frightful riot broke out in 1863, mostly by underprivileged and anti-Black Irish Americans who were angered because of the first federal conscription law. This was the enlistment of boys into the military due to the lack of volunteers. The provisions stated that rich boys could hire substitutes to go in their places or purchase exemption outright by paying $300. For several days, New York City became rampaged, as my lives were lost, including various lynched blacks.
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Morrill Tariff Act
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In 1861, Congress passed the Morrill Tariff Act, suspending the low Tariff of 1857. This increased the existing duties from 5 to 10 percent. The increases were designed partly to raise additional revenue and provide more protection for the prosperous manufacturers being plucked by new internal taxes. A protective tariff thus became identified with the Republican Party.
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Greenbacks
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The Washington Treasury issued greenback paper money, totaling $450 million, at face value to raise money in regards to the war. This printing-press currency was inadequately supported by gold, and hence its value was determined by the nation's credit. Greenbacks fluctuated with the fortunes of Union arms and at one low point were worth only 39 cents on the gold dollar. The holders of the notes, victims of inflation, were indirectly taxed as the value of currency decreased.
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National Banking System
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A financial landmark of the war, authorized by Congress in 1863. Launched partly as a stimulant to the sale of government bonds, it was also designed to establish a standard bank-note currency. Banks that joined the National Banking System could buy government bonds and issue sound paper money backed by them. This turned out to be the first significant step toward a unified banking network since 1836, when the Bank of the United States was killed by Andrew Jackson. It became replaced by the Federal Reserve System in 1913.
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Bull Run
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1861; Lincoln concluded an attack on a smaller Confederate force, that if won, would demonstrate the superiority of Union arms and maybe lead to the capture of Richmond, the Confederate capital. At first the battle went well for the Yankees, where Thomas Jackson stood like a stonewall and Confederate reinforcements arrived unexpectedly. Union troops fled in shameful confusion. Victory was worse than defeat for the south and many southern enlistments decreased. Defeat was better than victory for the Union, setting the stage for a war that would be waged for Union, but also for the abolitionist ideal of emancipation.
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Antietam
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A battle at Antietam creek, Maryland, when two of McClellan's soldiers found Lee's battle plans wrapped around a packet of three cigars dropped by Confederates. McClellan succeeded in halting Lee at Anteitam on September 17, 1862. Lee was removed from command, due to his failure to attack Lee. After this battle, the capitals cooled off from the unexpected power at Aneitam.
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Peninsula Campaign
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1862; George McClellan, decided to approach Richmond, the base of the James and York Rivers, on a water bourne basis. After the capture of Yorktown, McClellan stalled in front of Richmond when "Jeb" Stuart's Confederate cavalry defeated his army on reconnaissance. General Robert E. Lee launched the Seven Day's Battles-June 26-July2, 1862. The Confederates drove McClellan back to sea, and union forces abandoned general McClellan. If Richmond was captured, the Union would have been restored ad slavery would have survived, but since it was not Lee ensured the war would endure until slavery was uprooted, and thus Lincoln began drafting an emancipation proclamation.
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Thirteenth Amendment
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The emancipation proclamation, which declared slaves in confederate areas free, addressed the refugees' plights and strengthened the moral cause of the Union, specifically making the war about slavery. The presence of Southern slaves in camps and their perseverance against all odds convinced many Northern soldiers of slavery's evils. In 1865, this amendment was adopted prohibiting all forms of slavery and involuntary servitude. Former Confederate States were required to ratify the amendment prior to gaining reentry into the Union. The North now had a much stronger moral cause - preserve the Union and commit to freeing slaves, while the south was diminished.
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Fredericksburg:
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After Antietam, Lincoln replaced McClellan as commander of the Army of the Potomac with General A. E. Burnside, who launched an attack on Lee's strong position at Fredericksburg, Virginia in 1862. In 1863 Lee sent "Stonewall" Jackson to attack union plank, a victory. More than ten thousand Northern soldiers were killed or wounded. With this victory, Lee prepared to invade the North again through Pennsylvania.
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Gettysburg
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Union general George G. Meade took the place of Joseph hooker where he took stand atop a low ridge flanking a shallow valley near Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. This battle with 92,000 union soldiers and 76,000 confederate soldiers lasted for three days from July1-3, 1863. As the Battle raged, confederate peace delegation was moving under the flag of truce toward the Union lines, but the victory belonged to Lincoln, who refused to allow Confederate peace. From this point the South was destroyed and defeated.
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Sherman's March to the Sea
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General Grant won a series of engagements in November 1863 in the vicinity of Chattanooga, clearing Confederates out and thus openning an invasion of Georgia granted to General William Tecumseh Sherman. He captured the Atlanta in 1864 and burned the city later emerging at Savannah on sea. His sixty thousand men burned buildings, tore up railroads, heated them red-hot, and twisted them into "iron doughnuts". They also bayoneted family portraits, destroying supplies destined for the Confederate army and weakened the morale of men at the front by waging war on their homes.
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Copperheads
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With the death of Democrat leader, Stephen A. Douglas, the Democrats divided. A large group of "War Democrats" supported the Lincoln administration, while tens of thousands "Peace Democrats" did not - the Copperheads. Copperheads openly obstructed war through attacks against the draft, against Lincoln, and against the emancipation. They commanded considerable political strength in southern parts of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois. A notorious copperhead was Clement L. Vallandigham, who demanded the war "wicked and cruel", and was later convicted of treasonable utterances.
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Freedmen's Bureau
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The emancipators were faced with the brutal reality that the freedmen were unskilled, unlettered, and without poverty or money as well as the knowledge to survive as free people. Congress created the Freedmen's Bureau in 1865, which provided food, clothing, medical care, and education to freedmen and white refugees. The leader of the bureau was Union general Oliver O. Howard, achieving the success of education, with over 200,000 educated blacks. The Bureau was authorized to settle former slaves on forty-acre tracts confiscated from Confederates, however, little land was actually granted to blacks. Instead administrators collaborated with planters in expelling blacks and cajoling them into labor contracts, and it expired in 1872.
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Wade-Davis Bill:
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In 1863 Lincoln proclaimed his "10 percent" Reconstruction plan which declared that a state could be reintegrated into the Union when 10 percent of its voters in the presidential election of 1860 had taken an oath of allegiance to the United States and pledged to abide by emancipation. Republicans feared the restoration of the planter aristocracy to power and possible enslavement of blacks, thus proclaiming the Wade-Davis Bill. This bill required 50 percent of a states voter to take the oath of allegiance and demanded stronger safeguards for emancipation. Lincoln vetoed this by refusing to sign it after Congress had adjourned. Republicans were outraged and refused to seat delegates from Louisiana after that state had agreed to Lincolns 10 percent plan in 1864.
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14th Amendment
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In 1866, president Johnson vetoed a bill extending the Freedmen's Bureau, resulting in the Civil Rights Bill, which conferred black the privilege of American citizenship. Johnson vetoed this, but Congress dominated the power in government and passed it. The Republicans directed the Civil Rights Bill into the Constitution as the fourteenth Amendment in 1866 and ratified in 1868. This conferred civil rights, reduced proportionately the representation of a state in Congress and in the Electoral College if it denied blacks the ballot, disqualified Confederates as federal officeholders, and lastly guaranteed the federal debt, while repudiating all Confederate debts. This did not grant blacks the right to vote, but it was declared that all states must first ratify it before gaining restoration into the Union.
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Reconstruction Act:
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Congress passed the Reconstruction Act in 1867, which divided the South into five military districts, each commanded by a Union general and policed by Confederate soldiers. States were required to ratify the 14th amendment, giving the former slaves their rights as citizens. White southerners were required to guarantee their state constitutions full suffrage for their former slaves. This act, however, stopped short of giving the freedmen land or education at federal expense. The purpose was to create an electorate in Southern states that would vote those states back to the Union, not justifying the rights of blacks.
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15th Amendment
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After the Reconstruction plan was issued, which inadequately proved the justice of blacks, Republicans feared that southern states would withdraw the ballot from blacks once readmitted. In 1869, Congress passed the fifteenth amendment stating the black suffrage, and was ratified in 1870. This prohibited states from denying citizens the franchise on account of race, and disappointed feminists who wanted the Amendment to include suffrage of women.
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Impeachment
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charges against a president approved by a majority of the house of representatives
