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Memory

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the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information (p.255) when sarah went to six flags with her classmates, she remembered her 13th birthday at six flags because it is in her memory.

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Encoding

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the processing of information into the memory system (p.256) when you encode something, you put the information into your brain.

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Storage

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the retention of encoded information over time (p.256) when you store something, you retain it and that is how you remember information since it is stored.

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Retrieval

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the process of getting information out of memory storage (p.256) when you get out the information that has been stored (remembering)

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Sensory Memory

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The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system (p.256) capturing faces for a moment in a crowd at a basketball game.

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Short-term Memory

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Activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten. (256) memorizing a phone number to dial before forgetting it.

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Long-term Memory

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The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences. (256) memorizing your home address (comes to you naturally).

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Working Memory

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A newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory. (258) memorizing a phone number forever.

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Parallel Processing

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The processing of several aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step (serial) processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving. (258) Rock climbing and get stuck, you think about how high you are, distance to top, distance to next block, so that you can continue climbing.

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Automatic Processing

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Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings. (258) Remembering what you ate for dinner last night.

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Effortful Processing

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Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort. (258) Learning how to drive.

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Rehearsal

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The conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage. (258) repeating vocab words and definitions to practice and memorize for the next test.

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Spacing Effect

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the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice (261). learning employees names by spacing it out to learn over time.

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Serial Position Effect

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Our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list (261). memorizing a poem

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Visual Encoding

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The encoding of picture images (261). looking at a picture and interpreting the image.

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Acoustic Encoding

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The encoding of sound, especially the sound of words (261). processing a sound clearly.

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Semantic Encoding

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The encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words (261). understanding the meaning of a word.

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Imagery

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Mental pictures; a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding (263). learning to produce mental pictures to make encoding easier.

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Mnemonics

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Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices (263). ROYGBIV (red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet)

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Chunking

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Organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically. (265) a chess master who, after a 5 second look at the board during a game, can recall the exact positions of most of the pieces.

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Iconic Memory

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A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second (267). You look around the room, quickly surveying objects that you see on the floor, end tables, dresser, and bed, before quickly shutting your eyes. The memory of what your room looked like during your observation is an example of iconic memory.

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Echoic Memory

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A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds. (267) having a friend recite a list of numbers, and then suddenly stopping, asking you to repeat the last four numbers.

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Long-term Potentiation (LTP)

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An increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory (269). Rats given a drug that enhances LTP will learn a maze with half the usual number of mistakes.

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Flashbulb Memory

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A clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event (270). remembering the birth of your first child.

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Amnesia

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The loss of memory (270). a lady who has amnesia has a sudden loss of memory.

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Implicit Memory

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Retention independent of conscious recollection (273). riding a bike would be an example of implicit memory

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Explicit Memory

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Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare". (273) having read a story once, they will read it faster a second time, showing implicit memory.

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Hippocampus

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A neural center located in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage. (273) damage to the hippocampus disrupts some types of memory.

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Recall

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A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier. (274) you would use recalling on a fill-in-the-blank test

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Recognition

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A measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned (274). you would use recognition on a multiple choice test.

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Relearning

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A memory measure that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time (274). studying the names of the seven dwarfs a second or third time will be easier than the first time.

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Priming

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Activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory (274). seeing or hearing the word rabbit primes associations with hare, even though we may not recall having seen or heard rabbit.

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Deja Vu

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That eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience. (276) You see a stranger who looks and walks like one of your friends, the similarity may give rise to an eerie feeling of recognition.

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Mood-congruent memory

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the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood (279). When you're upset about something and start crying, you think about a bunch of other events that make/have made you sad and result in you crying more.

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Proactive Interference

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The disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information (283). an English speaking person may have greater difficulty learning Spanish because of his or her tendency to want to apply English grammar to the new language.

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Retroactive Interference

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The disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information (283). you may have difficulty skiing because of recently learning how to snowboard.

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Repression

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In psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories (285).

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Misinformation Effect

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Incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event (287). Your mom tells you that the stitches on your arm are from when you tripped down the staircase (but you really didn't), you might think that you remember that because it's believable.

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Source Amnesia

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Attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. (Also called source misattribution.) Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories (287). your friend told you about his bike trip to Wisconsin. A year later, you recall details about the trip, however, you are not sure about how you learned about the details. You may falsely conclude that you have traveled to Wisconsin. You may reason that you recall things so clearly, you must have been there yourself. The source of the information - your friend - is forgotten, and the second-hand information is integrated in your memory.

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Richard Atkinson

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Atkinson's most fundamental and far-reaching contribution to cognitive psychology is the Atkinson-Shiffrin model (with Richard M. Shiffrin), one of the most significant advances in the study of human memory. It put a theory of memory on a mathematical basis for the first time., form memories through three stages: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

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Alan Baddeley

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Proposed a more complex, modular model of short-term memory that characterizes it as "working memory".

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Fergus Craik

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Asserted that learning and recall depend on the depth of processing. different levels of processing exist from the most superficial phonological (pronunciation) level to the deep semantic (meaning) level. The deeper the processing, the easier it is to learn and recall.

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Hermann Ebbinghaus

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Ebbinghaus found that the more time he practiced a list of nonsense syllabus on day 1, the fewer repetitions he required to relearn it on day 2. Said simply, the more time we spend learning novel information, the more we retain.

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Eric Kandel

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Studied the sea slug Aplysia and posited that learning and memory are evidenced by changes in synapses and neural pathways.

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Jeffrey Karpicke

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Identified the Testing Effect - tests are not only a means of assessing learning but also improving it.

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Karl Lashley

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He was an American psychologist and behaviorist well-remembered for his influential contributions to the study of learning and memory. His failure to find a single biological locus of memory in the rat's brain (or "engram", as he called it) suggested to him that memories were not localized to one part of the brain, but were widely distributed throughout the cerebral cortex.

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Elizabeth Loftus

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Cognition and memory; studied repressed memories and false memories; showed how easily memories could be changed and falsely created by techniques such as leading questions and illustrating the inaccuracy in eyewitness testimony.

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H.M. ( Henry Molaison)

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American memory disorder patient who had a medial temporal lobectomy to surgically remove the anterior two thirds of his hippocampi, and other parts of his brain to cure his epilepsy. His case played an important role in the development of theories that explain the link between brain function and memory.

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Rajan Mahadevan

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Memorized over 30,000 digits of pi and recited them in order with no mistake

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George Miller

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Found that short term memory has the capacity of about 7 (+/- 2) items.

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Henry Roediger

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Psychology professor who specializes in false memories, implicit memory, and how cognitive concepts affect learning.

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Oliver Sacks

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Neurologist who writes books containing interesting stories about his patients (An Anthropologist from Mars; The Man who Mistook his Wife for a Hat)

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Daniel Schacter

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Researcher who "created" the seven sins of memory.

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James Schwartz

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Studied whether electrochemical switches in the brain cause shifts in functions of brain circuits, leading to different behaviors

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Richard Shiffrin

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Developed the 3-stage processing model of memory, suggesting that we form memories through sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory

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George Sperling

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Demonstrated sensory memory by flashing a grid of 9 letters for 1/20th of a second. Tested recall time by flashing rows of numbers and saw if participants could immediately recall the numbers.

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Endel Tulving

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Differentiated between episodic and semantic memory, but also argues that they can work together.

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