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diagnosis

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Enables clinicians and scientists to communicate accurately with one another about cases or research. Can help a person understand why certain symptoms are occurring, which can be a huge relief.

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Reliability

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refers to consistency of measurement. For example, two rulers are typically reliable at measuring the same length.

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Interrater reliability

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refers to the degree to which two independent observers agree on what they have observed

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test-retest reliability

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measures the extent to which people being observed twice or taking the same test twice, perhaps several weeks or months apart, receive similar scores.

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alternate-form reliability

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Patient is given two forms of the test rather than the same test twice. This enables the tester to determine the extent to which scores on the two forms of the test are consistent

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internal consistentcy reliability

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Assess whether the items on a test are related to one another.

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Reliability measure

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Measured on a scale from 0 to 1, .65 is moderate reliability, .91 is very reliable

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Validity

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A complex concept related to whether a measure measures what it is supposed to measure. If a questionnaire is supposed to measure hostility, does it do so?

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Content validity

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Refers to whether a measure adequately samples the domain of interest. A test to assess social anxiety should include items that cover feelings of anxiety in different social situations. It has excellent content validity

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Criterion validity

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Is evaluated by determining whether a measure is associated in an expected way with some other measure (the criterion). Criterion validity for the measure of negative thoughts could be established by showing that people with depression score higher on the test than do people without depression.

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Concurrent validity

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When both variables are measured at the same point in time

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predictive validity

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criterion validity can be assessed by evaluating the ability of the measure to predict some other variable that is measured at some point in the future

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construct validity

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relevant when we want to interpret a test as a measure of some characteristic or construct that is not observed simply or overtly. A construct is an inferred attribute, such as anxiousness or distorted cognition. EX: anxiety questionnaire; If the questionnaire has construct validity, people who obtain different scores on our test really will differ in anxiety proneness

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ghost sickness

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an extreme preoccupation with death and those who have died, found among certain Native American tribes

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comorbidity

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Refers to the presence of a second diagnosis. Is the norm rather than the exception.

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Research Domain Criteria (RDoC)

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The National Institute of Mental Health is tackling this problem of too many diagnostic categories by working on a new diagnostic system that seeks to create (many fewer) categories based on common causes. (etiology) System currently conceived as a roadmap for research that will lead to the development of a new classification system that is based on neuroscience and genetic data rather than just clinical symptoms.

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categorical classification

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A categorical system forces clinicians to define one threshold as 'diagnosable'. This is used in DSM-5.

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dimensional diagnostic system

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Type of diagnosing system that describes the degree of an entity that is present.

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Clinical Interview

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This is different from a casual conversation in the attention the interviewer pays to how the respondent answers questions, or does not answer them. (Most clinicians empathize with their clients in an effort to draw them out and to encourage them to elaborate on their concerns)

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Structured Interview

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Questions are set out in a prescribed fashion for the interviewer. Mental health professionals need to collect standardized information, particularly for making diagnostic judgements based on the DSM.

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SCID

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Structured Clinical Interview. A commonly used structured interview that is currently being revised for the DSM-5. This is a branching interview; that is, a person's response to one question determines the next question that is asked. It also contains detailed instructions to the interviewer concerning when and how to probe in detail and when to go on to questions about another diagnosis

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stress

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Can be conceptualized as the subjective experience of distress in response to perceived environmental problems

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GAS

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general adaptation syndrome. Used to describe the biological response to sustained and high levels of stress. There are three phases of response: 1 The alarm reaction, the autonomic nervous system is activated by stress 2 Resistance. the organism tries to adapt to the stress through available coping mechanisms 3 Exhaustion, If the stressor persists or the organism is unable to adapt effectively, the organism dies or suffers irreversible damage. Created by the physician Hans Seyle Current conceptualizations of stress emphasize that how we perceive or appraise the environment determines whether a stressor is present. Highly subjective

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LTE or PERL

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List of Threatening Experiences. Psyciatric Epidemiological Research Interview Life Events Scale These checklists typically list different life events (death of spouse, serious illness, financial crisis) and participants are asked to indicate whether or not these events have happened to them in a specific period of time.

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Psychological tests

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A further structure in the process of assessment. The two most common are personality tests and intelligence tests

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Personality inventory

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The person is asked to complete a self-report questionnaire indicating whether statements assessing whether habitual tendencies apply to him/her. When these tests are developed, they are typically administered to many people to analyze how certain kinds of people tend to respond.

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Standardization

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Statistical norms for the test can be established. The responses of a particular person can be compared to statistical norms.

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Minnesota Multiphase Personality Inventory (MMPI)

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MMPI is called multiphase because it was designed to detect a number of psychological problems. Hundreds of items were tested in very large samples of people with and without a diagnosis. Sets of these items were established as scales. Has good reliability and validity and is widely used.

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projective test

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Personality test. A psychological assessment tool in which a set of standard stimuli - inkblots, drawings - which are ambiguous, stimulate responses from the patient which reveal his or her attitudes, motivations, and modes of behavior

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projective hypothesis

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The assumption is that because the stimulus materials are unstructured and ambiguous, the person's responses will be determined primarily by unconscious processes and will reveal his or her true attitudes, motivations, and modes of behavior.

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Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)

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A projective test. A person is show an series of black and white pictures one-by-one, and asked to tell a story related to each. Ex: A boy observing a youth baseball game from behind a fence. Poor validity

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Rorschach Inkblot Test

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Projective test. A person is shown 10 inkblots one at a time, and asked to tell what the blots look like. Poor validity

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Intelligence test

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IQ test. A way of assessing a person's current mental ability. Based on the assumption that a detailed sample of a person's current intellectual functioning can predict how well he or she will perform in school, and most such tests are individually administered. Good reliability

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WISC, WAIS, WPPSI, Stanford-Binet

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Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children. Most commonly administered tests. These help identify: 1 To diagnose learning disorders and identify areas of strengths and weaknesses for academic planning 2 To help assess whether a person has an intellectual disability 3 To identify intellectually gifted children so that appropriate instruction can be provided for them 4 As part of neuropsychological evaluations

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Behavioral Assessment

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Observers behind a one-way mirror watched the proceedings and reliably coded the child's reactions to the mother's efforts to control as well as the mother's reactions to the child's compliant or non-compliant responses. These procedures yielded data that could be used to measure the effects of treatment.

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Self-monitoring

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Cognitive behavior therapists and researchers often ask people to observe and track their own behavior and responses. Self-monitoring is used to collect a wide variety of data, including moods, stressful experiences, coping behaviors, and thoughts.

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Ecological Momentary Assessment (EMA)

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A method of self-observation. EMA involves the collection of data in real time as opposed to the more usual methods of having people reflect back over some time period and report on recently experienced thoughts, moods, or stressors. With EMA, a person is signaled (Like via text message) several times a day and asked to enter responses directly into the device.

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Reactiviy

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Behavior changes because it is being observed

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Cognitive-style questionnaires

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Cognitive questionnaires tend to be used to help plan targets for treatment as well as to determine whether clinical interventions are helping to change overly negative thought patterns as well as negative and positive emotions.

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DAS

answer

Dysfunctional Attitude Scale. Cognitive-style questionnaire. Contains items such as 'people will probably think less of me if I make a mistake' Researchers have shown that they can differentiate between people with and without depression on the basis of their scores on this scale and that scores decrease (improve) after interventions that relieve depression. One self-report questionnaire that was developed based on Beck's theory

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1. If conducted properly, a psychological assessment typically includes just one measure most appropriate to the person. True or False

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False

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2. Unstructured interviews may have poor reliability, but they can still be quite valuable in a psychological assessment. True or False

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True

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3. The MMPI-2 contains scales to detect whether someone is faking answers. True or False

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True

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4. The projective hypothesis is based on the idea that a person does not really know what is bothering him or her; thus a subtler means of assessment is needed. True or False

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True

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5. Intelligence tests are highly reliable. True or False

answer

True

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6. EMA is a method to assess unwanted impulses. True or False

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False

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Brain Imaging

answer

CT and MRI scans reveal the structure of the brain. PET reveals brain function and (poorly) structure. fMRI is used to assess both brain structure and brain function

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Neurotransmitter assessment

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PET scans of neurotransmitter receptors Postmortem analysis of neurotransmitters and receptors Assays of metabolites of neurotransmitters

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Neuropsychological Assessment

answer

Behavioral tests such as the Halstead-Reitan and Luria -Nebraska assess abilities such as motor speed, memory, and spatial ability. Deficits on particular tests help point to an area of possible brain dysfunction.

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PsychoPhysiological Assessment

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Includes measures of electrical activity in the autonomic nervous system, such as skin conductance, or int he central nervous system, such as EEG.

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CT or CAT scane

answer

Computerized axial tomography. Helps to assess structural brain abnormalities. A moving beam of X-rays passes into a horizontal cross section of the person's brain, scanning it through 360 degrees; the moving X-ray detector on the other side measures the amount of radioactivity that penetrates, thus detecting subtle differences in tissue density.

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MRI

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Magnetic Resonance Imaging. Superior to the CT scan because it produces pictures of higher quality and does not rely on even the small amount of radiation required by a CT scan. The patient is placed inside a large, circular magnet, which causes the hydrogen atoms in the body to move. When the magnetic force is turned off, the atoms return to their original positions and thereby produce an electromagnetic signal. These signals are then read by the computer and translated into pictures of brain tissue. Allows physicians to locate delicate brain tumors

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fMRI

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functional MRI. Allows researchers to measure both brains structure and brain function. This technique takes MRI pictures so quickly that metabolic changes can be measured, providing a picture of the brain at work rather than of its structure alone.

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BOLD

answer

fMRI measures blood flow in the brain, called the BOLD signal, which stands for blood oxygenation level dependent. As neurons fire, presumably blood flow increases to that area.

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PET scan

answer

Positron Emisson Tomography More expensive and invasive. Allows measurement of both brain structure and brain function, although the measurement of brain structure is not as precise as with MRI or fMRI. A substance used by the brain is labeled with a short-lived radioactive isotope and injected into the bloodstream. The substance emits a particle called positron which quickly collides with an electron. High-energy light particles shoot out from the skull in opposite directions and are detected by the scanner. Can indicate areas of degeneration, tumors, strokes, and trauma from head injuries, as well as disruptions in the neural connections between brain regions, differences in volume in various brain regions, and the distribution of psychoactive drugs in the brain.

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Metabolite

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A metabolite, typically an acid, is produced when a neurotransmitter is deactivated. These by-products of the breakdown of neurotransmitters, such as norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin, are found in urine, blood serum, and cerebrospinal fluid. Ex: metabolite of dopamine is homovanillic acid (HVA) Metabolite of serotonin is 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA) A high level of a particular metabolite presumably indicates a high level of a neurotransmitter, and a low level indicates a low level of a neurotransmitter

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Neurologist

answer

Physician who specializes in diseases or problems that affect the nervous system, such as stroke, muscular dystrophy, cerebral palsy, or Alzheimer's disease

question

neuropsychologist

answer

a psychologist who studies how dysfunctions of the brain affect the way we think, feel, and behave

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Neuropsychological Tests

answer

Often used in conjunction with the brain-imaging techniques, both to detect brain dysfunction and to help pinpoint specific areas of behavior that are impact by problems in the brain. Based off the idea that different psychological functions rely on different areas of the brain.

question

Luria-Nebraska battery

answer

The battery is valid for detecting behavior changes pinked to brain dysfunction resulting from a variety of conditions, such as tumors, stroke, and head injury. Can be administered in 2 1/2 hours and can be scored in a reliable manner. Seeks to identify brain defects based on variations in responses to psychological tests.

question

Psychophysiology

answer

Concerned with the bodily changes that are associated with psychological events For example: Experimenters have used measures such as heart rate, tension in the muscles, blood flow in various parts of the body, and electrical activity in the brain (so-called brain waves) to study physiological changes when people are afraid, depressed, asleep, imagining, solving problems, and so on.

question

Electrocardiogram EKG

answer

Each heartbeat generates electrical changes, which can be recorded by electrodes places on the chest that convey signals to an electrocardiograph or a polygraph

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Electrodermal responding

answer

Skin conductance. Anxiety, fear, anger, and other emotions increase activity in the sympathetic nervous system, which then boosts sweat gland activity. Increased sweat gland activity increases the electrical conductance of the skin

question

Electroencephalogram

answer

Measures brain activity. Electrodes placed on the scalp record electrical activity in the brain or help in locating brain lesions or tumors. EEG indices are also used to measure attention and alertness

question

MRI is a technique that shows both the structure and function of the brain. True or false

answer

False Shows just function not structure

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Neurotransmitter assessment is most often done using indirect methods. True or false

answer

True

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A neuropsychologist is a psychologist who studies how dysfunctions of the brain affect the way we think, feel, and behave

answer

True

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Brain activity can be measured with the psychophysiological method called EKG

answer

False EKGs measure heart rate

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1. Major changes in the DSM-5 include (circle all that apply): a. removal of the multiaxial system b. reorganization of the chapters c. many fewer diagnoses d. none of the above

answer

a. removal of the multiaxial system

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2. Which type of reliability or validity is tested with the following procedures? _______ A group of high school students is given the same IQ test 2 years in a row. _______ A group of high school students is given an IQ test, and their scores are correlated with a different IQ test they took the year before. _______ A measure of the tendency to blame oneself is developed, and researchers then test whether it predicts depression, whether it is related to childhood abuse, and whether it is related to less assertiveness in the workplace. _______ People are interviewed by two different doctors. Researchers examine whether the doctors agree about the diagnosis. a. interrater reliability b. test-retest reliability c. criterion validity d. construct validity

answer

b. test-retest reliability c. criterion validity d. construct validity a. interrater reliability

question

1. List three reasons why some think DSM should lump diagnoses.

answer

1. high comorbidity, 2. many different diagnoses are related to the same causes, 3.symptoms of many different diagnoses respond to the same treatments

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2. What are three broad types of characteristics that a valid diagnosis should help predict?

answer

2. any three of the following: etiology, course, social functioning, treatment

question

brain imaging

answer

CT and MRI scans reveal the structure of the brain. PET reveals brain function and, to a lesser extent, brain structure. fMRI is used to assess both brain structure and brain function

question

The Rorschach may have validity in identifying Question 1 options: a) depression, anxiety, and schizophrenia. b) schizophrenia, borderline personality disorder, and dependent personality traits. c) dependent personality traits, depression, and anxiety. d) schizophrenia, dependent personality traits, and anxiety.

answer

b) schizophrenia, borderline personality disorder, and dependent personality traits.

question

Why should we not expect a one-to-one relationship between psychological and physical measures of brain functioning? Question 2 options: a) They cannot measure brain functioning during normal daily activity. b) Little is known about the functioning of individual neurons c) Psychological measures have low reliability and validity. d) People differ in how well they cope with brain dysfunctions.

answer

d) People differ in how well they cope with brain dysfunctions.

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PET is to CT scan as Question 3 options: a) structure is to function. b) function is to structure. c) cognitive is to behavioral. d) projective is to objective.

answer

b) function is to structure.

question

Question 4 (1 point) Question 4 Unsaved An example of a self-report cognitive assessment consistent with Beck's theory of depression is Question 4 options: a) Internal-External Attribution Questionnaire. b) Dysfunctional Attitude Scale. c) Attributional Style Questionnaire. d) Cognitive Thought Record.

answer

b) Dysfunctional Attitude Scale.

question

Which of the following is NOT a feature of the DSM-5 as compared to previous versions of the DSM? Question 5 options: a) Enhanced sensitivity to the developmental nature of psychopathology b) Removal of the multiaxial system c) New gender-specific diagnoses d) Increased emphasis on ethnic and cultural considerations in diagnosis Save

answer

c) New gender-specific diagnoses

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When Dr. Smith diagnoses a patient with schizophrenia and Dr. Jones diagnoses that same patient with obsessive-compulsive disorder, we would say that Dr. Smith and Dr. Jones have Question 6 options: a) low validity. b) low reliability. c) low accuracy. d) low criteria.

answer

b) low reliability.

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Jose, a Puerto Rican living in New York, was being assessed by Dr. Jones, a doctor born in the U.S. Jose casually states that he feels there are spirits surrounding him. Dr. Jones may Question 7 options: a) misdiagnose him as having schizophrenia if he fails to take cultural factors into account. b) ignore this information if he fails to take cultural factors into consideration. c) correctly diagnose him as having schizophrenia despite any cultural factors. d) None of the above.

answer

a) misdiagnose him as having schizophrenia if he fails to take cultural factors into account.

question

Why do behavioral assessors sometimes set up contrived situations in which to observe behavior? Question 8 options: a) They do not think the setting is an important influence on people's behavior. b) Such assessments avoid the problem of reactivity. c) They want to see how people respond in unusual situations. d) It is often difficult to control the conditions in natural settings.

answer

d) It is often difficult to control the conditions in natural settings.

question

If Jose wants to know if the scale at the grocery store he uses to weigh his tomatoes has alternate-form reliability he could Question 9 options: a) take them home and weigh them again in an hour. b) weigh the tomatoes on two other scales in the produce department and see if they weighed the same. c) ask another shopper what she thinks the tomatoes weigh. d) take the tomatoes and put them on-and-off the scale several times and see if they weigh the same each time.

answer

b) weigh the tomatoes on two other scales in the produce department and see if they weighed the same.

question

The MMPI is an example of a(n) Question 10 options: a) projective test. b) personality inventory. c) intelligence test. d) structured clinical interview.

answer

b) personality inventory

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The construct validity of intelligence tests is limited by Question 11 options: a) how psychologists define intelligence. b) the nature of the population tested with the instruments. c) their generally low reliability. d) none of the above.

answer

a) how psychologists define intelligence.

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Average intelligence is associated with a score of approximately Question 12 options: 130. 70. 100. Average intelligence cannot be determined.

answer

100

question

PET and MRI are specific types of Question 13 options: a) projective tests. b) personality inventories. c) neuropsychological tests. d) brain imaging tests.

answer

d) brain imaging tests.

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If a clinician is informed that a prospective client, who is seeing things that are not actually there, is African-American and in a lower income bracket, the clinician may be more likely to Question 14 options: a) suggest a diagnosis of mood disorder. b) suggest a diagnosis of schizophrenia. c) suggest that there is a good prognosis for treatment. d) recommend a second opinion.

answer

b) suggest a diagnosis of schizophrenia.

question

The best way for clinicians to avoid bias in the diagnosis of patients from ethnic minority groups is to Question 15 options: a) avoid seeing such patients in their practice. b) avoid diagnosing such patients. c) employ only those personality measures that have been specifically designed for that ethnic group. d) learn to consider and test alternative hypotheses when evaluating clients from different ethnic groups.

answer

d) learn to consider and test alternative hypotheses when evaluating clients from different ethnic groups.

Abnormal Psychology Ch 3 – Flashcards

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