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psychological disorder

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psycological dysfunction associated with distress or impairment in functioning -response that is not typical or culturally expected

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phobia

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psycological disorder characterized by marked and persistent fear of an object or situation

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three parts to a psychological disorder

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1. psychological dysfuntion 2. distress or impairment in functioning 3. respinse that is not typical or culturally expected

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psychological dysfunction

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refers to a breakdown in cognitive, emotional, or behavioral functioning

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personal distress or impairment

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psychological disorder must be associated with distress -criterion is satisfied if the individual is extremely upset *by itself THIS criterion does not define abnormal behavior

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impairment

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-comes with distress -useful although not entirely satisfactory

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atypical or unexpected culturally

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-important yet insufficient to determine abnormally in the form of a psychological disorder -abnormal:deviates fromt he NORM. but this doesnt work well for definition -another view:behavior is abnormal if you are violating social norms 1. problems with this though

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psychopathology

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scientific study of psychological disorders -studying psychological disorders 1. clinical description 2. causation 3. treatment and outcome

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scientist-practitioners

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mental health professional expected to apply scientific methods to his or her work. -must know latest research on disgnosis and testment -must evaluate hos or her methods for effectivness -may generate research to discover information about disorders and their treatment

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Clinical description of psychopathology

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1. begins with a PRESENTING PROBLEM -original complaint reported by client to therapist -aims to distinguish clinically significant dysfunction from common human experience 2. Clinical description -details of combo of behaviors, thoughts and feelings -PREVALENCE 1. number of people displaying a disorder in the total population at any given time -INCIDENCE 1. number of new cases of a disorder appearing during a specific time period 3. describe onset of disorders -acute(begin suddenly) vs insidious(over an extended period) onset 4. describe course of disorders -episodic, time-limited, or chronic course 5. prognosis

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causation, treatment and outcome

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-etiology 1. cause or source of disorder -treament development 1. figure out how to alleviate suffering(BUT cannot cure them) -treatment outcome research 1, how do we know that we have helped 2. limited in specifying actual causes of disorder *make assumptions a lot of the time becasue only about to report wht they feel(huge placebo effect)

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development psychology vs developmental psychopathology

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1. study of changes in behavior over time 2. changes in abnormal behavior

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course

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pattern of development and change of a disorder over time

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prognosis

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predicted development of a disorder over time

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types of mental health care

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1. Ph.D-clinical & counseling psychologist 2. Psy.D-clinical and counseling "doctor of psychology" 3. M.D. psychiatrist 4. M.S.W.-psychiatric social worker 5. MN/MSN-psychiatric nurse 6. MS-counselors -lay public and community groups

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historical concepts

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-major psychological disorders have existed in all cultures, across all time periods -three dominant traditions 1. supernatural 2. biological 3. psychological

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supernatural tradition

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-deviant behavior as a battle of GOOD vs EVIL -last quarter of the 14th century 1. thought disorders were work of the devil 2. caused by demonic pssession, witchcraft, sorcery -teatments 1. exorcism 2. beatings/torture 3. crude surgeries

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exorcism

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:ritual that attributes disordered behavior to possession by demons and seekd to treat the individual by driving demons from body -other approaches included shaving pattern of cross in hair of victims head and securing sufferers to a wall near the front of a church so that they might benefit from hearing mass

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sorcery and witches

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-conviction due to madness and other evils contrivuted into the 15th century -percieved connection between evil deeds and cin on the one hand and psychological disorders on the other

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stress and melancholy

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-insanity was a natural phenomenon, caused by mental or emotional stress, and that is was CURABLE -treatment 1. rest, and happy healthy environment -later known as depression

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hysteria

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-large scale outbreaks of bizarre behavior -emotion contagion:experience of an emotion seems to spread to those around us

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The moon and the stars

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-movements of the moon and stars had profound effects on peopls psychological functioning -inspired word LUNATIC:derived from LUNA

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Biological Tradition

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*Hippocrates:father of western medicine *Galen:humeral theory -discovered behavior as a physical disease

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Humoral theory

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normal brain functioning was realated to FOUR bodily fluids 1. blood:heart-cheerful and optomistic 2. black bile:spleen-depressive 3. phlegm:brain-sluggishness, calm 4. yellow bile:liver-hot tempered -believed disease resulted from too much or too little of one of the humors -bloodletting:blood removed from body, often with leeches

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hysteria

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concept learned from Egyptians -identified what we now call somatoform disorders 1. physical symptoms appear to be the result of an organic pathology for which no organic cause can be found -paralysis -since occurred primarily in women, presumed cause was empty UTERUS had wandered to various parts of body in search of conception

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19th century

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-syphillis 1. biological link with madess 2. advanced stages look like psychosis(delusions and hallucinations) but got worse and died

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general paresis

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course of events(syphillis) contrasted with that of most psychotic patients, who remained fairly stable -condition of syphillis became known as general paresis 1. because it had consistent symptoms and consistent course that resulted in dealth

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Pasteurs germ theory

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1870s lead to recognizing cause of syphillis -high fever from malaria cured, eventually PENECILLIN

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John P. Grey

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-champion of biological tradition in US -believed causes for insaity were always physical and so patient should be treated as physically ill 1. invented rotary fan -under his leadership mental hospitals became more like hospitals -no use treating until found casue led to warehousing

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20th century

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1930s -electric shock and brain survery used 1. effects were discovered by accident 2. insulin given to stimulate appetite in psychotic patients but also seemed to CALM them 1950s -first effective drugs for disorders were developed -neroleptics and major tranquilizers 1960s -improved anti-depressants and research on brain chemistry takes off 1. few of drugs work as well as companies say

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psychological tradition

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plato=thought two causes of maladaptive behavior were the social and cultural influences inones life aristotle=pmphasized the influence of social environment and early learning on later psychopatology -moral therapy 1. approach that involved treating patients as normally as possible in normal environments -key figures(pilippe pinel & benjamin rush) 2. decline due to increased numbers in late 19th, 20th century

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PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY

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-Mesmer=influential -Freud=most influential 1. created ego

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ANTON MESMER

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-suggested to his patients that their problem was caused by an undetectable fluid found in all living organisms called "animal magnetism" -had patients sit in dark room around large vat of chemicals with rods extending from it and touching them -tap them in diff areas and suggest they were cured(power of suggestion)

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unconsious

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part of psychic makeup that is outside awareness of person

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catharsis

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rapid or sudden release of emotional tension thought to be an important factor in psychoanalytic therapy

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psychoanalytic model

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focus on 3 major facets 1. structure of mind and distinct functions of personality that sometimes clash with one another 2. defense mechanisms with which the mind defends itself from them clashes, or conflists 3. stages of early psychosexual development that provide grist for the mill of our inner conflict

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structure of the mind

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-freudian theory of the structure anf function of the mind 1. ID(pleasure principle; illogical, emotional, irrational) 2. EGO(reality principle, logical and rational) MEDIATOR 3. SUPER EGO(moral principles, conscience)

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defense mechanisms

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-ID and super EGO fighting and EGO regulating. when ego fails:defense mechanisms types: 1. denial 2. displacement 3. projection 4. rationalization 5. reaction formation 6. repression 7. sublimination

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denial

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refuses to asknowledge some aspect of objective reality or subjective experience that is apparent to others -deny existence

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displacement

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transfers feeling about, or response to, an obkect that causes discomfort onto another, less threatening -cant yell at boss so kick dog

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projection

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falsely attributes own unacceptable feelings, impulses, or thoughts to another individualor object -homophobia

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rationalization

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conceals true motivationfor accusations, thought or feelings through elaborate reasuring or self serving but incorrect explanations -failed cuz bad exam

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reaction formation

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subsitutes behavior, thoughts, or feelings, that are the direct opposite of unacceptable ones

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repression

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block disturbing wishes, thoughts, or experiences from consious ones -child abuse

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sublimination

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directs potentially maladaptive feelings or impulses into socially acceptable ones -become a boxer cuz really aggressive

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psychosexual stages of development

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-most controversial theory -everything is about pleasure(ID) 1. if i dont get needs met then i get stuck in a phase phases 1. oral(0-18mths) 2. anal(18-3 1/2 yrs) control body function 3. phallic(3 1/2-6yrs) genitilia awareness 4. latency(6 to puberty) 5. genital(puberty-adulthood)

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later developments in psychoanalytic thought

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-de-emphasized the sexual core of freuds theory -self psychology:learn how to behave(ego personality) -ojects realtion:all have objects we look up to as child

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the "talking cure"

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-just talk about problems -therapy often long term:want to change personality 1. therapist worried about root problems not symptoms techniques: 1. fress association:instructed to say whatever comes to mind without censoring 2. dream analysis:dream content examined as symbolic ID impulses and conflicts 3. transference:patient relates to therapist as significant figure that is part of problem

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freudian slip

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mean to say something but said another and shows what really thinking

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HUMANISTIC THEORY

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major themes- 1. people are basically good and healthy 2. humans strive toward self-actualization -therapists try to convey empathy and unconditioned positive regard(accepts no matter what) -minimal therapist interpretation -important that therapist is GENUINE general philosophy(respect client)-relationship MOST important

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self-actualization

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in which people strive to achieve their highest potential against difficult life experiences

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unconditioned positive regard

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acceptance by counselor on clients feelings and actions without judgement or condemnation

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BAHAVIORAL THEORY

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-brought systematic development of a more scientific appraoch to psychological aspects of psychopathology -freud had nothing to do with science -pavlov:important in this approach -watson:wanted to figure out how to see it in humans(little albert)

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classical conditioning

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universial form of learning -conditioned fear 1. all emotion leared/conditoned event that elicits a response is paired with anohter stimulus even that doesn not. after repeated pairings neutral stimulus becomes conditioned

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Behavior therapy

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challenged psychoanalysis and non-scientific approaches -joseph wolpe:first to apply classical conditioning as treatment(works to overcome fears) OPERANT CONDITIONING 1. voluntary behavior controlled by consequenses -behavior+reinforcement=do it again -behavior+punishment=dont do it again

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behavioral therapy continued

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learning traditions influenced the development of behavior therapy -skinner=extremist 1. black box idea: cant influence whats in box only what goes in and out -behavior therapy tends to be TIME-LIMITED and direct -stron effects supporting efficacy of behavior therapies for specific problems/behavior change

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behavioral theory

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-still used for simply changing behavior and fear based problems -concepts extended to social learning(more recently) 1. learn by observing -concepts shared with Cognitive and Cognitive behavioral therapies(look at thought patterns) 1. focus on changing thoughts and beliefs -accepted that much of who we are is based on experience

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systematic desentization

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technique to diminish excessive fears, involving gradual exposure to feared stimulus paired with positive coping experience, usually relaxation

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CHAPTER 2

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integrative appraoch to psychopathology

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one dimensional model

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-explains behavior in terms of a single cause -tendency to ignore information from other areas

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multidimensional model

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-draws upon information from several sources -abnormal bbehavior results from multiple influences -"system" of influences that cause and maintain suffering

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Types of multidimensional models of abnormal behavior

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-major influences 1biological 2behavioral 3emotional & cognitive -social and cultural -developmental

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genetic contibutions to psychopathology

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phenotype vs genotype -nature of genes

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phenotype

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...

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gene

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-deoxyriobose acid DNA -basic physical unit of heredity that appears as a location on a chromosome -23 pairs of chromosomes -polygenetic=influenced by many genes *genetic contribution to psychopathology is about 50%

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diathesis-stress model

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hypothesis that both an inherited tendency(a vulnerability) and specific stressful conditins are required to produce a disorder -each inherited tendency=diathesis

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reciprocal gene-environment model

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hypothesis that people with a genetic predisposition for a disorder may also have a genetic tendency to create environmental risk factors that promote the disorder -example:depression

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environmental impact on genes

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strong effects of the environment have been found to highly effect genetics and the way people are molded into life ex: baby put into dysfunctional family will grow up with tendencies and likelihood to have disorder later in life. Vice versa if baby put into normal family then grow up with little tendency to develop disorder

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epigenetics

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-study of heritable changes in gene expression or cellular phenotype caused by mechanisms other than changes in the underlying DNA sequence -overreacting in childhood leads to shortened lifespan for offspring -male smoking in adolescence leads to higher BMI in offspring

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neuroscience

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study of nervous system and its role in behavior, thoughts, and environments -branches of human nervous system 1. central nervous system(brain and spinal cord) 2. peripheral nervous system(somatic and autonomic branches)

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central nervous system

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-processes all information recieved from out sense organs and reasts as necessary 1. sorts out what is relevant and what isnt NEURON:cell brain uses avg 140 billion -controls every thought and action -transmit information throughout nervous system

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neuron structure

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1. Soma:cell body 2. dendrites:branches that recieve messages from other neurons 3. axon:trunk of neuron that sends messages to other neurons 4. axon terminals:buds at end of axon from which chemical messages are sent 5. synapses:small gaps that separate neurons 6. mylein shealth:speeds up connections

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neurotransmitters

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chemical that crosses the synaptic cleft between nerve cells to transmit impulses from one neuron to the next. ex:glutamate, serotonin, dopamine

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communication between neutrons

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-neurons commuicate ELECTRONICALLY within the neuron -communicate CHEMICALLY between neurons 1. when hits synapse turn to commuicate chemically -neurotransmitters are the chemical messangers

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brain structure

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Three main divisions 1. hindbrain 2. midbrain 3. forebrain *differentiates us from animals

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Hindbrain

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1.medulla:heart rate, bllod pressure, respiration 2. pins:regulates sleep stages (bridge) 3. cerebellum:involved in physical coordination *all part of brain stem

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Midbrain

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-coordinates movement with sensory input 1. you hear a sound and you look towards direstion it came from -contains parts of the RECTICULAR ACTIVATING SYSTEM(RAS) 1. thing that arouses you -if damaged lead to COMA -overactiveated=sleeping problems

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Forebrain

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CEREBRAL CORTEX -most sensory, emotional, and cognitive processing -two specialized hemispheres=left and right

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limbic system

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EMOTION 1. thalamus:recieves and integrates sensory information 2. hypothalamus:eating, drinking, temp regulation, aggression, sexual activity(important) 3. hippocampus:short term memory 4. amygdala:emotional associations(link memory and emotion) 5. BASAL GANGLIA -clusters of cell bodies -movement and posture

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cerebral cortex

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-important part of the brain(it is the cell body basically) 1. where all thinking occurs -occipital=integrates visual input -parietal=touch recognition, spatial skills -temporal=language, auditory processing -frontal=thinking and reasoning abilities, executive functioning, motor skills(damage not apparent right away) 1. personality and who you are in in the frontal lobe

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brain damage

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OCCIPITAL lobe-blind spots, blind sight, vidual agnosia PARIETAL lobe-contralateral neglect, tactile agnosia(cant recognize anything you touch), prosopagnosia, construction apraxia(cant copy image) TEMPORAL lobe-aphasia(receptive)=meaning you cannot process language, memory problems, sound processing FRONTAL lobe-ataxia(problems moving), aphasia(expressive), executive dysfunction

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peripheral nervous system

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-coordinates with the brain stem to make sure the body is working properly. -its all the nerves outside the brain and spinal column -two branches 1. somatic branch 2. autonomic branch

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somatic branch

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controls all voluntary muscles and movement

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autonomic branch

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-has two parts 1. sympathetic 2. parasympathetic -regulates cardiovascula system and body temperature -also regulates the endocrine system and aids in digestion

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sypathetic

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fight or flight

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parasympathetic

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rest or relaxation

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endocrine system

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HORMONES-chemical messanger produced by the endocrine glands -chemical communcaition is ISOLATED -it has SLOWER effects, no immediate response -the Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenalcortical axis(*HPA axis) 1. important, involved with stress reactions(cortisol) 2. implicated in several psychological disorders

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functions of neurotransmitters

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-three different functions 1. agonist-increase activity 2. antagonist-blocks membrane from working, decrease activity 3. inverse agonist-opposite way it would work normally *most drugs are either agonistic or antagonisitic

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types of neurotransmitters

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1. glutamate & gamma aminobutyric acid(GABA) 2. serotonin 3. nonepinephrine 4. dopamine

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glutamate and GABA

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used ALL over -spread throughout brain -glutamate=activates neurons -gamma=inhibitor of neurons. inhibit transmission of informaiton and action potential -both work in concert to balance functioning in brain referred to as "chemical brothers" -fast acting

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serotonin

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specific pathway -modd regulation -arousal -too much=impulsive not enough=obsessive, less inhibition, agression, excessive sexual behavior -at least 15 different receptors in serotonin system

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nonepinephrine

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adrenaline -produced by adrenal glands -energy, alertness, concentration -attention -stimulates two groups 1. alpha-adrenergic receptors 2. bets-adrenergic receptors -may bear some relationship to states of panic

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dopamine

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-attention and pleasure -role in switching systems ON -related to schizophrenia 1.too much dopamine

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reputake

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action by which a neurotransmitter is quickly drawn back into the discharging neuron after being released into a synaptic cleft

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implications of neuroscience for psychopathology

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--relations between brain and abnormal behavior 1.example:OCD -can apply behavioral therapy -psychosocial influences 1. can change brain structure and function(synapses change) -therapy 1. also can change brain structure and function 2. medications and psychotherapy -psychosocial FACTORS 1. interact with brain structure and function

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behavioral and cognitive science

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-conditioning and cognitive processes 1. martin selikmen -studied rats and conditioning(electric shock) 2.classical conditioning 3. learned helplessness/learned optimism -how much you think you can do CONTROl=very important -social learning:learn by watching -prepared learning:bilogically predisposed to know something 1. phobias (spiders vs flies)

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role of emotion

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definition:pattern of action elicited by an external event and a feeling state accompanied by a characteristic physiological response -emtion is HARD to define 1. its a motivator. pushes to a response -fight or flight -affect:emotional response in moment to something specific(grandma died and laughing about it) -action tendency is different from affect and moog -mood:emotional quiality over period of time

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components to emotion

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three components: 1. behavior:actions in moment(facial expression) - means to communicate 2. physiology:brain function(primative) -allows to respond very quickly 3. cognitive:appraisal of situation(why responding) *any of these can vary emotion *harmful side of emotional dysregulation 1. anger, hostility, illness, depression, panic attacks(psychopathology)

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stress reaction

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1. stress hormone released into body 2. three things happens -increaing bllod pressure and pulse -increasing respiration -increasing alertness of eyes, ears, and nose -all of these prepare for "fight or flight" 3. leads to EXHAUSTION -in todays world stressors are more like exams or work load 1. problem with getting rid of stress easily and leads to exhaustion -can be a motivator at times 1. though can have same negative effects

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cultural, social, and personal factors in psychopathology

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1. cultural factors -BELIEFS can have HUGE impact 1. can die from stong beliefs(dont believe in medicine) 2. gender effects -exert stron and puzzling effect on psychopathology 1. phobias:females90%, males just push through fear 3. social effects -frequency and quality important -related to mortality, disease, and psychopathology 1. friendships:love longer if have better relationships 2. even extends to having pets around

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beliefs and psychopathology

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-cultures around the world may suffer form disorders, all deal with it in different ways -EX:susto=characterized by various anxiety symptoms and the marked symptoms of sweating and increased heart rate 1. said only to have one cause:individual becomes object of black magic or witchcraft and in some cultures sinister influence called the EVIL EYE 2. resulting fright disorder can be fatal:became known as voodoo death -medicine man sentences person to death and persons social circle abandons them

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gender differences

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-likelihood of having a particular phobia is powerfully influenced by gender. -cultural expectations play a role

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life span and developmental influences

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-life span and developmental perspective 1.addresses developmental changes 2. influence and constrain what is normal and abnormal -dont respond the same way in every situation as growing older (EX: divorce when you are 5 vs when 25) 3. erik erikson 8 stages of development help to discern what is normal and abnormal

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equifinality

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-developmental psychopathology principle that a behavior or disorder may have several causes 1. have to look at all factors "all roads lead to Rome" idea EX:delusional syndrome may be an aspect of schizophrenia but it can also arise from amphetamine use

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summary pf multidimensional perspective of psychopathology

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-multiple causation 1. is the RULE, not the EXCEPTION -take broad, comprehensive, systematic perspective 1. biological(hormonal, health , neuro, etc) 2. psychological(beliefs, etc) 3. social, cultural, and developmental factors(support groups, experiences, development, etc) ALL OF THIS IS USED TO COME UP WITH A TREAMENT PLAN

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chapter 3

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clinical assessment, diagnosis, and research methods

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clinical assessment

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-systematic evaluation and measurment of psychological, biological, and social factors in a person presenting with a possible psychological disorder -GOALS: 1.understand individual 2. predict behavior 3. plan treatment 4. evaluate treatment outcome analogy: it starts broad then narrows to specific approaches

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diagnosis

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process of determining whether a presenting problem meets the established criteria for a specific pschological disorder

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key concepts in assessment

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-no test is perfect, no measurement is perfect -get more precise, but never gets exact -score=truth+error -reliability estimates amout of error 1. consistency in measurement 2. examples include test-retest and inter-rater reliability

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reliability

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degree to which a measurement is consistent-for example, over time or among different raters

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validity

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-degree to which a technique measures what it purports to measure -does the assessment approach measure what it says it is going to measure? KNOW *Reliable but not valid=possible *valid but not reliable=impossible

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predictive validity

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how well assessment tells what will happen in the future

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concurrent validity

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comparing the results of the assessment under consideration with the results of others that are better known, allows psychologists to begin to determine the validity of the first measure

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standardization

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*the approach is the same way -process of establishing specific nomrs and requirements for a measurement technique to ensure it is used consistently across measurement occasions. -ensures consistency in the use of a technique 1. helps to reduce error -norms 1. provides population benchmarks for comparison 2. how people in general perform

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value of assessment

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it depends on: 1. reliability -degree to which a measurement is consistent 2. validity -degree to which a technique measures what it is designed to measure 3. standardization -applicaiton of certain standards to ensure consistency across dirfferent measurements

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The clinincal interview and physical exam

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-major way psychologists examine, most common clinical assessment method 1. goal to understand who you are -gathers information on current and past behavior, attitudes, and emotions as well as detailed history of the individuals life and the presenting problem -three types:structured, unstructured and semi structured

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structured clinical interview

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verbatum, and doesnt deviated from questions -very reliable, but you may miss stuff by not asking or following up on questions

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unstructured clinical interview

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most general idea but there is no plan during interview -go off of what patient says -most common way -but not as reliable

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semi structured clinical interview

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have a list of questions but also follow up with other questions based on answers patient gives

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physcial exam

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physical disorder can mimic psychological disorders and so can get exam to make sure not the same

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mental status exam

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MOST COMMON -relatively coarse preliminary test of a clients judgement, orientation to time and place, and emotional and mental state, typically conducted during an inital interview -occurs when any one person interacts with another -cover five categories 1. appearance and bahvior 2. thought process 3. modd and affect 4. intellectual functioning 5. sensorium

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appearance and behavior

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notes over any overt physical behavior, such as Franks twitch, as well as individuals dress, general appearance, posture, and facial expression

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thought process

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listen to patients talk -develop good idea of that persons thought processes -listen to content of speech

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mood and affect

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important part of mental staus exam -mood predominent feeling state of the indiviual -affect refers to the feeling state that accompanies what we say at the given point. look for inappropriate responses

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intellectual functioning

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-types of vacabulary -use of abstractions and metaphors

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sensorium

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-awareness of surrounding in terms of person, time, and place *oreinted times three(3X)-person, place, time

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behavioral assessment

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-measuring, observing, and systematically evaluating the clients thoughts, feelings, and behavior in the actual problem situation or context -focus on the present:here and now -direct observation of behavior-evironment relations 1. looking for relationships with the environment -purpose is to identify problematic behaviors and situations -identify atecedents(causes), behaviors, and consequences(BEHAVIORAL ABC's)

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the ABC's of oberservation

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1.antecedent(cause) 2. behavior 3. consequence

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behavioral assessment and observation

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-formal observation=looking for something specific -informal=just observing -self monitoring vs being observed by others 1. react differently when know being observed

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psychological testing and projective tests

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-PSYCHOLOGICAL tests: include specific tools to determine cognitive, emotional, or behavioral responses that might be associated with disorder -sample of behavior in order to better understand some aspect of an indvidual -must be reliable and valid -people answer more honestly and quicker(its a little more removed) PROJECTIVE tests:based measure that presents ambiguous stimuli to clients on the assumption that their responses can receal their unconsious conflicts -lack high reliability and validity -preject aspectsw of personality onto AMBIGUOUS test stimuli -require high degree of inference in scoring and interpretation EX:Freud dream analysis -get past conscious then more honest -dream will project something about you

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psychological and projective tests examples

answer

1. rorscharch inkblot test:still used 2. thematic apperception test(TAT):not as widely used -cards with pictures(1 blank), tell story about each picture *reliablity and validity data tend to be mixed

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objective tests

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-roots in empirical tradition -stimuli CLEAR 1. usually just statements(True or False) -require minimal clinical inference in scoing and interpretation OBJECTIVE PERSONALITY TESTS -Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory(MMPI, MMPI-2) 1. been around since 1940s 2. statistical 3. extensive reliability, validity, and normative database 4. indiviual responses not examined, rather pattern of responses

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other objective personality tests

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-used to screen for psychopathology -million clinical multiaxal inventory(MCMI-II, III):theoreticaly based -personality assesment inventory(PAI):newer, more straight forward INTELLIGENCE TESTS -IQ and intelligence=not the same -definition:score on an intelligence test estimating a persons deviation from average test performance -wechsler scales 1. deviation IQ:persons score compared to others of same age -verbal, perceptual, memory, speed indices -theoretical based tests beginning to be accepted

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neuropsychological testing

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-VERY different -assessment of brain and nervous system functioning by testing an individuals performance on behavioral tasks

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neuroimaging

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-pictures of the brain 1. cat scan:utilizes x-rays 2. MRI:magnetic feilds, btr resolution that CAT 3. PET:look at activity of brain, radioactive isotopes 4. SPECT: more specific still 5. EEG:brain wave activity

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Diagnosing foundations

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diagnosis classificaiton: -calssificaiton is CORE to all sciences -assignment to categories based on shared attributes or relations -TERMINOLOGY 1. taxonomy:classification in a scientific context-how you classify 2. nosology:applicaiotn of taxonomy in psychological/medical phenomona(medical or psychological) 3. nomenclature:nosological labels(panic disorder)

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problems with classifying and diagnosing

answer

1.categorical vs dimensional approaches -classical(or pure) categorical approach=STRICT CATEGORIES(male or female) -dimensional approach=classification along dimensions(how much charcterictic you have....masculine->feminine) -prototypical approach=combines classical and dimensional(most used) *diagnosis=do you meet criteria or not

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more problems with classifying and diagnosing

answer

TWO widely used classification systems 1. ICD-10(used everywhere but US) -international classification of diseases and health realated problems -published by the World Health Organization 2. DSM-IV and DSM-IV-TR -used in US -diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders *both are very similar

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DSM-IV-TR

answer

characteristics -five axis:full clincal presentatin(5 areas) -clear inclusions and exclusion criteria for disorders -disorders are catergorized under BROAD headlines -empirically-grounded, prototypic approach to classificcation 1. lot of research 2. certain degree of politcal ex:homophobia

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5 axis of DSM-IV-TR

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1. axis 1=clinical disorders(main focus), V codes -V codes: areas of significant focus of treatment but dont meet criteria for disorders 2. axis 2=personality disorders, MR(mental retardation) -pervasive & inherent:control lives 3. axis 3=general medical conditions -just medical conditions that affect you 4. axis 4=psychosocial/environmental problems -lack of support(environment) 5. axis 5=general assessmentr of functioning -GAF score:least scientific 1. mainly used for insurance purposes

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problems with DSM-IV-TR

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-problem of comorbidity:1 diagnosis could qualify for another 1. defined as two or more disorders for the same person 2. high comorbodity is the rule clinically 3. threatens validity of separate diagnoses(problem)

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PROs and CONs of DSM-IV-TR

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Pros:inderstanding, communcation, research Cons:labeling issues and stigmatization

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research

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starts with an educated guess or hypothesis

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hypothesis

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-have to be testable -research design 1. way to test hypoth

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independent variable

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what you are manipulating to experiment

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dependent vairable

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what you are measuring

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internal validity

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what you are supposed to be measuring in an experiment -within experiement the change in the dependent variable -what we would expect to change or something else that caused change *extent to which results of the study can be attributed to the independent variable

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external validity

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can take results found and try/generalize on other people or population *extent to which results of the study can be generated or applied outside the immediate study

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confounds

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threats to internal validity -the other components that can change the outcome of study ways to minimize confounds: 1. control groups 2. random assignment *relation between internal and external validity -precision(internal)-want to have perfect study and control everything -generalizability(external)-applies to general population

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statistical significance

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willing to accept that outcome may be due to chance. problem:bigger the group, smaller area to see statistical difference

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clinical significance

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are the results meaningful

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balancing statistical and clinical significance

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-evaluate effect size -social validity:amount or cost of the drug wortht the outcome

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patient uniformity myth

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-says that if test successful it should work with everyone *not always true 1. not same one person to the next

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single case study

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study one person throughly limitations: 1. lacks scientific rigor and sutible controls 2. internal validity weak

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correlation

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-common:realtion between two or more variables -no idependent variable manipulated range: -1.0 to 1.0 ALWAYS limitations: 1. does not imply causation -just becasue see realtionship doesnt mean there is one -done to initially look at something

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experiment

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-only way to show causation -manipulation of independent variables -attempt to establish casual relationships

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repeated measure

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very important to get good validity and reliability -premium on internal validity

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genetic research strategies

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phenotype vs genotype family studues adoptee studies twin studies genetic linkage and association studies

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family studies

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behaviors/emotional traits in family members problem:people also living together, could be a confound

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adoptee studies

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serparte environments from genetic factors -siblings separated then studied on how they grow up

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twin studies

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psychopathology in fraternal vs indentical

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genetic linkage and association studies

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sites of defective genes -know site on chromosome, look share trait and see if find pattern people to share EX depression

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time-based research studies

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longitudinal studies-study of a group of people from young age through out life. problem: people leave study cross sectional study:instead of over time pick an age group and study problem:not same developmental history sequential designs BEST -combination

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research eithics

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IRB and APA ethics code informed consent -competence 1. ability to provide consent -voluntarism 1. lack of coersion -full information 1. necessary information to make an informed decision -comprehension 1. understanding about benefits and risks of participation

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