IB Psychology 8 Mark Essays – Flashcards

- State Kelly's Attribution theory- everyone has to give an explanation on why they do something - Define and give examples for situational and dispositional factors - Introduce Zimbardo's Stanford Prison Experiment (1973) BODY - State the aim-investigate the effects of being assigned as a prisoner or a prison guard in a simulated prison - 24 men were involved - Uniforms for prisoners made to look humiliating / uniforms for prison guards made to look powerful - Prisoners had privileges taken away and prison guards were given privileges. - The experiment lasted for 6 days, target was for 14 - Due to the pathological reactions - Prison guards began to be arrogant and cruel in their behaviour towards the prisoners. CONCLUSION - Restate the link between question and the study, participants were put into situations that changed their behaviour

- State Kelly's attribution theory- everyone has to give an explanation on why they do something. - State that fundamental attribution error is an error in attribution (if question asks for 2, state self-serving bias). - Introduce Ross et, al. (1997) BODY - State the aim- was to see if student participants would commit the fundamental attribution error even when they know that all actors were playing a role. - 18 pairs of university students, to be either a questioner or a contestant in a simulated quiz game show - A group of observers - Questioners came up with 10 challenging questions for the contestants to answer - Contestants on average scored 4/10 - Both the contestants and observers believed that the questioner was of higher intelligence. CONCLUSION restate question showed fundamental attribution error

- State the Tajfel and Turner Social Identity theory- states the way we act is dependent on what group we are in at that moment - 3 components - social categorization (process in which we identify which groups we belong), social comparison (means of justifying their group memebership) and self esteem. - give definitions for all - intro to study Jane Elliot 1968 BODY amrc of Jane Elliot 1968. aim - was to emphasize the effects of discrimination and groups bias on personal traits and self-esteem. CONCLUSION Link back to question. Shows the social identity theory

Define Stereotype - cognitive representation of a social group that helps simplify the social world and allow assumptions to be made about a person based on limited information. GIVE EXAMPLE - formed due to the social identity theory, state the theory. - people are normally to favour their in-group and keep out-groups foreign. people then generalise their out-groups which then causes prejudice and discrimination. - stereotype threat is when a person's performance was weakened due to the pressure applied by a stereotype. - stereotype threat generates spotlight anxiety, spotlight anxiety, spotlight anxiety causes emotional distress that may undermine performance. - Intro to study Steele and Aronson (1995) BODY - The aim of was to determine if stereotype threats would negatively affect the performance of african-americans. AMRC CONCLUSION link back to question, performance of african americans.

- State the social learning theory, - that we learn our behaviour from the surrounding environment, through modelling and/or reinforcement. - Define- Modelling (is a process where a behaviour or action is imitated) and Vicarious reinforcement (is learning by viewing someone else's behaviour and/or actions) - Define ingroups - Four stages of SN1 Attention (the extent to which we focus on others' behaviour), Retention (ability to retain a representation of others' behaviour in memory), Production Processes (is our ability to actually perform the actions we observe) and Motivation(is our need for the actions we witness). Link to study BODY Aim was to test if behaviours such as aggression can be learnt through observation specifically aggression. AMRC of Bandura et, al. 72 children, 36 and 36 male and female. 3 groups, aggressive, non aggressive and control. Results showed that the aggressive condition was more aggressive towards the bobo doll. If the toy was of a female gender the toy would receive equal amount of verbal and physical aggressiveness. If the toy was of a male gender the toy would receive far more physical aggression then verbal. CONCLUSION Link back to question, show how the social learning theory was shown.

- State some compliance techniques. - 3 types of social influence, compliance, obedience and conformity. - Define Compliance (Compliance can be defined as a change in behaviour of a perceived direct pressure to respond to a request by another person or group.) GIVE AN EXAMPLE - Define foot in door and door in face techniques. BODY AMRC of Petrova (2007) aim- to investigate level of compliance between collectivist cultures and individualistic cultures. 3000 US students One month later recieved a follow up email. US students were twice as high to agree to both conditions. define collectivist and individualistic cultures CONCLUSION link back to question, show the use of compliance techniques.

Define conformity. Kelman (1958) suggests that conformity is a result from one's basic behaviours; Social comparison. Conformity is also performed due to the principle of Socio-Cultural level of analysis, the innate need to belong. Define Social comparison (means in which to justify group membership). Conformity results in three types of social influences; informational social influence (the need for certainty, in ambiguous situations tend to perform social comparison), normative social influence (the need to belong or accepted) and referent social influence (more likely to conform in an ingroup rather than an outgroup). Define group norms. BODY amrc of asch 75% conformed once 32% minimum of half of the questions 25% never conformed CONCLUSION link back to the question, normative social influence.

Define conformity (change in behaviour as a result of real or imagined group pressure) 3 social influences, informational, normative and referent. State the factors that influence, group size, unanimity, private vs public responses and self-esteem. BODY AMRC OF ASCH group size was changed, when there was 1 confedereaate 3% conformity, 2 confederates 14% and 3 confederates 32%, any larger conformity would not increase. when responding privately conformity was low however publically was high. CONCLUSION link to question, talk about how the results show the factors influencing conformity

- Talk about culture, - culture has many definitions and variations. - Trandis (2002) distinguishes the difference between objective (clothes and cuisine) and subjective culture (beliefs and values). EXAMPLE FOR BOTH - General definition of culture- Matsumoto and Juang (2008) - a dynamic system of rules, explicit and implicit, shared by a group and transmitted across generations, that allows the group to meet basic needs of survival. - Link to cultural norms. Para 2 - Definition of cultural norms - are the rules which indicate the expected behaviour in a group or culture, normally passed down by generations. - GIVE AN EXAMPLE OF CULTURAL NORMS - State they are fundamental in a culture, norms are needed to sustain the culture in many ways. CONCLUSION - Give definitions of both, culture and cultural norms. - State that they intertwine.

- State that Geert Hofstede suggests that there are four cultural dimensions - individualism vs collectivism, power distance, uncertainty avoidance and masculinity/femininity. - Give definitions for collectivism and individualism. AND EXAMPLES - Define culture - intro petrova (2007) BODY amrc of petrova aim- to investigate the effect of cultural dimensions, specifically individualism and collectivism, on the foot-in-door technique. 3000 US university students. Asked to complete 20 minute survey then asked 40 minutes. 22% of Americans agreed to both compared to 10% of asians. CONCLUSION link to the question, it outlines cultural dimension as the asians and americans demonstrated the cultural dimension of individualism vs collectivism

- Emic and Etic approaches are used in the Socio-Cultural Level of Analysis to gather information about cultural norms. - State that they use different methods of gathering data. - Emic uses inductive reasoning, state inductive reasoning (starting from an observation, then creating a hypothesis from the observations to finally create a thesis). - How emic relates to culture - first immerse themselves in the culture in order to develop understanding - Etic approach uses deductive reasoning, state deductive reasoning (starts with a theory then you create a hypothesis then supports this through observations.) - how etic relates to culture - finds cultural differences in one's behaviour. by comparing the same behaviour across two cultures. - intro to study berry (1967) this uses etic concepts BODY AMRC of berry Conclusion - how berry shoes etic approach.

Define Socio-Cultural level of analysis- scientific study of how people's thoughts, feelings and thus behaviours are influences by actual, implied or imagined presence of others. 3 fundamental principles- behaviour is affected by others, even when we think we are acting independently. Psychologists argue that situational factors play more a significant role in our behaviour than dispositional. Second principle is the innate need to belong. unconscious need to belong. (aim and conclusion of jane elliot) Third principle - culture influences behaviour (aim and conclusion of petrova). introduce asch for the first principle BODY amrc of asch CONCLUSION demonstrates the first principle, more likely to conform when more confederates are unanimous.

-State the 2 research methods used in SCLOA - observations and experiments -Define experiment - hypothesis testing and variable control. -Define hypothesis testing -Strength of an experiment. - cause and effect relationship due to the independent varibles. -Define independent, dependent and controleed variables. -State other factors which affect an experiment include how participants are allocated, and the method design. -Another strength of an experiment- ecological validity - how well the results cna be concluded about a communtiy. -Limitation of an experiment - demand characteristics or experimenter effects that may bias the results and become confounding variables. intro asch BODY amrc of asch CONCLUSION link back to question, state the experimental design state the variables

Define SCLOA- the scientific study of how peoples thoughts, feelings and behaviours are influenced by actual, implied or imagined presence of others. - State that ethical considerations are important in scloa as it investigates human behaviour. - List ethical considerations - deception, undue stress or harm and the right to withdraw. - Focus on Deception, why it's used- to control for demand characteristics, as expectancy effects are avoided. - Mention - REsearchers may also use a confederate to create a social situation in order to observe the bhaviour of the 'naive participant'. - List a consequence of deception - cause undue stress or harm - more stress than they would encounter in everyday life. - Mention fudamental rights of participants in psychological experiments - withdrawal rights. - intro asch (1951) BODY AMRC of asch mention deception CONCLUSION link back to question, and how deception as used in asch. why it was used also. mention how it is hard to obtain informed consent as the informed consent must remain extremely vague. mention how that should be talked about in the debrief

Define Memory - where mind stores and remembers information. Schemata occurs within memory- defined as the mental representations of classes or categories of people, objects, events, and situations. Functions of Schemata - simplifying detail and speeding up processing. State the schema theory - what we already know will inflence the outcome of information processing, and will affect memory. Link to memory distortion - is when information is missing, and our brain fills in blanks on an existing schema (reconstructive memory). intro bartlett (1932) BODY AMRC of bartlett - to investigate reconstructive memory on existing schemata - british participants were told the story war of the ghosts then asked to recall (serial reproduction) - results showed that the participants reconstructed memory to match the british culture. i.e. words like canoe was changed to boat and seal hunting was changed to fishing. CONCLUSION link back to question, state the memory distortion.