Critical Thinking Final – Flashcards
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Marketing Research
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Identifying a target market and finding out if it matches customer desires
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Escalation of Commitment
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the overcommitment of marketing to a particular answer
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Strategic Plan
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a method by which an organization deploys its resources to realize a goal
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SWOT model
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used to analyze a companys strengths, weaknesses, external opportunities and threats
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Mass Media
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forms of communication that are designed to reach and influence very large audiences
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Niche Media
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forms of communication geared to a narrowly defined audience
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Media Literacy
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the ability to understand and critically analyze the influence of the mass media
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Science
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the use of reason to move from observable, measurable facts to hypotheses to testable explanations for those facts
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Empiricism
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the belief that our physical senses are the primary source of knowledge
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Objectivity
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the assumption that we can observe and study the physical world without any observer bias
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Materialism
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the belief that everything in the universe is composed of physical matter
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Dualism
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the belief that there are two substances-the physical and the non physical
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Scientific Method
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a process involving the rigorous, systematic application of observation and experimentation
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Hypothesis
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a proposed explanation for a particular set of phenomena
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Scientific Theory
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an explanation for some aspect of the natural world based on well-substained facts, laws, interferences, and tested hypothesis
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Pseudoscience
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a body of explanations or hypothesis that masquerades as science
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Research Methodology
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a systematic approach in science to gathering and analyzing information
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Scientific Experiment
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research carried out under controlled or semicontrolled conditions
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Independent variable
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the factor in a controlled experiment that is being manipulated
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Dependent variable
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a factor in a controlled experiment that changes in response to the manipulation
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Confounding Variable
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a factor that is not accounted for or controlled by the experimental design
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Experimental Material
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the group or class of objects or subjects that is being studied in an experiment
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Placebo
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a substance used in experiments that has no therapeutic effect
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Single-blind Study
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a controlled experiment in which only the experimenter knows which study subjects are in which group
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Double-blind Study
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a controlled experiment which neither study subjects nor experimenters know which group the study subjects are in
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External Validity
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the results of an experiment can be accurately generalized to the real world
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Margin of Error
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the change that the results of an experiment are based on random variation in the sample
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Confidence Level
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the percentage by which a scientist can be confident in generalizing the results of an experiment to a problem
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Meta-Analysis
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the statistical analysis of the results of several similar experiments
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Normal Science
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scientific research that is based on past achievements and is recognized by most scientists
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Paradigm
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the accepted view of what the world is like and how we should go about studying it
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Scientific Revolution
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a paradigm shift in which a new scientific theory replaces a problematic paradigm
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State of Nature
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the condition in which people lived prior to the formation of a social contract
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Social contract
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a voluntary agreement among the people to unite as a political community
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Sovereignty
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the exclusive right of government to exercise political power
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Tacit Consent
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the implicit agreement to abide by the laws of a country by remaining there
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Legitimate Authority
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in a democracy the right to rule given to the government by the people
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Direct Democracy
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the type of democracy in which all of the people directly make laws and govern themselves
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Representative Democracy
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a form of democracy in which people turn their authority to govern to their elected representatives
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Tyranny of the Majority
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the majority impose their policies and laws on the political minorities
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Populism
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a belief in the wisdom of the common people and in the equality of all people
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Elitism
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a belief in the rule of the best people
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Liberal democracy
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a form of democracy emphasizing liberity of individuals
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Federalism
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a system in which power is divided between the federal and state governments
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Separation of Powers
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a system in which there separate branches of government act as a check on one another
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Impeachment
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the process by which congress bring charges against and tries a high level government official for misconduct
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Rule of Law
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the idea that governmental authority must be exercised in accordance with established written laws
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Rule of Men
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a system in which members of the ruling class can make arbitrary laws and rules
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Lobbying
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the practice of private advocacy to influence the government
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Initiatives
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laws or constitutional amendments proposed by citizens
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Referenda
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laws or constitutional amendments put on the ballot by state legislators
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Libertarian
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a person who opposes any government restraints on individuals freedom
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Civil Disobedience
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the active, nonviolent refusal to obey a law that is deemed unjust
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Judicial Review
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the power given to the supreme court to strike down any law that it deems to be unconstitutional
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Rule of Evidence
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a set of rules that ensure fairness in the administration of law
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Common Law
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a system of case based law that is derived from judges decisions over the centeries
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Doctrine of Legal Precedent
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the idea that legal cases should be decided in the same way as previous similar legal cases
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Case Brief
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researching the case under consideration and summarizing its relevant details
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Fallacy of Relevance
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the premise is logically irrelevant of unrelated to the conclusion
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Ad Hominem Fallacy
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instead of presenting a counterargument we attack the character of the person who made the argument
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Straw Man Fallacy
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an opponents argument is distorted or misrepresented in order to make it easier to refute
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Red Herring Fallacy
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a response is directed toward a conclusion that is different from that proposed by the original arguemnt
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Fallacy of Division
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an interference from the characteristics of an entire set or group about a member of that group or set
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Fallacy
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a faulty argument that at first appears to be correct
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Formal Fallacy
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a type of mistaken reasoning in which the form of an argument itself is invaild
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Ambiguity
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arguments that have ambiguouis phrases or sloppy grammatical structure
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Equivocation
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key term in an argument changes meaning during the course of the argument
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Amphiboly
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argument contains grammatical mistake which allows more than one conclusion to be drawn
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Accent
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meaning of an argument changes depending on which word or phrase in it is emphasized
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Division
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Erroneous interference from the charachteristics of an entire set or groupd about a member of that group or set
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Relevance
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premises is logically irrelevant, or unrelated, to the conclusion
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Appeal to force/ Scare Tactics
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use or threat of force in an attempt to get another person to accept a conclusion as correct
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Appeal to Pity
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pity is evoked in an argument when pity is irrelevant to the conclusion
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Popular Appeal
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appeal to popular opinion to gain support for our conclusion
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Appeal to ignorance
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claiom that something is true simply because no one has proven it false, or that something is false simoky because no one has proven it true
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Hasty Generalization
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Genrealization is made from a sample that is too small or biased
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Unwanted Assumption
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fallacious arguemnt that contains an assumption that is not supported by evidence
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Begging the Question
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conclusion of an arguemnt is simply a rewording of a premise
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Innappropriate appeal to authority
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look to an authority in a field other than that under investigation
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Loaded Question
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Particular answer is preasumed to an unasked question
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False Dilemma
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responses to complex issues are reduced to an, either or choice
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Questionable cause
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a person assumes, without sufficient evidence that one thing is the cause of another
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Slippery Slope
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Faulty assumption that if certain actions are permitted, then all actions of this type will soon be permissible
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Naturalistic
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fallacy based on the assumption that what is natural is good
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The assumptions of science
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Empiricism, Objectivity, Materialism, Predictability, Unity
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4 positions regaurding the relationship between science and religion
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1. science always trumps religion when there is a conflict 2. religion always trumps science when there is a conflict 3. science and religion operate in two separate and mutally exclusive realities 4. science and religion are conscience with the same reality and are compatatible and complementary
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3 research methods used in experimentaion
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1. field experiments 2. controlled experiments 3. single group experiments
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Critieria for a well designed experiment
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1. Discrimination 2. Unbiased 3. Measurement 4. Replicable 5 Generality
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Moral and noviolent ways to achieving goals
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the achieve goals like boycotting, illegal picketing and nonviolent resistent
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ways n which we as citizens can participat in the lawmaking process
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1. use only moral and nonviolent ways 2. first make and effort to bring change using legal means 3. be open and public about our actions 4. Be willing to accept the consequences of our actions
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why its important to critically think
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1. avoid bad decisions 2. higher self esteem 3. better relationships 4. confidence 5 making good decisions
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Qualities of a good critical thinker
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1. keep an open mind 2. good problem solver 3. cant be affected by peer pressure 4. communicate well 5. put ourselfs in others shoes
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Confirmation bias vs hasty generalization
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confirmation bias- at the dualistic stage of research, seeking out only evidence that supports your views and dismissing evidence that contradicts it. hasty generalization- a generalization is made from a sample that is too small or biased
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Difference between Inductive and Deductive arguments
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Deductive-is a claim that the conclusion is NECISSARILY that follows the premise. Inductive arguement- is a claim that the conclusion PROBABLY follows the premise
