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-Develop around particularly sought-after growing or grazing grounds -Occurs with pastoralists, horticulturalists and developing ag -Kin based -Leadership is in the blood -One man with authority over more than one community -Form of government

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Chiefdom

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One political Unit, encompassing many communities. -Centralized government with a large bureaucracy and the power to -collect taxes -Draft men for work or war -Decree and enforce laws Occur with intensive agriculture of storable food, i.e. grain (wheat, barley, corn, rice,etc.) State level societies are called civilizations -people congregate in cities, leads to urbanization EX:Ancient Mesopotamia,U.S, Canada

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State

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-Dependence on culture helps humans survive but is also a source of freedom. Cultural traditions arise out of imagination and cultural experimentation with the material world. -Humans can have similar lifeways in different environments or different lifeways in similar environments

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How is Human Imagination entangled with material World?

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-until 10,000 years ago, humans and their hominin ancestors were all hunter and gatherers living in bands -Then glaciers retreated and Earth's changing climate created new ecological settings

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Why did humans settle down?

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when an organism actively changes its environment or a new environment

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Niche Construction

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Domestication of plants and animals is a form of niche construction because: -Reproduction of local species is interfered with by human action. -Human action changes local environmental settings.

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Why is domestication seen as a form of niche construction ?

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Sedentism, or setting in one location, became increasingly common for farmers. Wild plants, like wheat were transformed through domestication by -Tougher connections visa their "rachis" to their cereal shafts -Larger kernel size and increased numbers of kernels

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What changes are related to plant domestication?

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Challenging to see archaeologically but can be indicated by: -Animals outside their natural range -Physical changes in animal shape and size -Abrupt increasing in animal numbers in one location -Increased numbers of males killed for meat

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What are the signs of animal domestication?

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-Broad-spectrum foraging is one theory that views domestication as directly related to climate change. -The end of the ice age enabled more secure hunting, gathering, and fishing -Populations grew and became more sedentary -Stress on resources led some domesticate wild plants and animals

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Domestication Theories

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Domestication of plants and animals occurred independently in three areas of the Americas: -Mesoamerica: corn and squash -South America: manioc, potatoes, beans, quinoa, llamas -Eastern U.S: goosefoot, marsh elder, sunflowers, and squash

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Domestication in the Americas

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Domestication and Sedemtism had drawbacks but societies became too dependent to return to foraging -Land was no longer freely available -Populations grew -Diseases spread more -Surplus production of food become possible

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What are the consequences of domestication and sedentism?

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Egalitarian social relations were seen in early farming and herding societies. -No great differences were seen in wealth, prestige, or power -Such non-complex societies should not be seen as "simple"

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Egalitarian Social Relations

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Social complexity arose as social organization became stratified -Increasing differences were seen in oceans to wealth prestige of power Control of surplus production by a few individuals becomes evident -Surplus production involved producing more food than bare minimum needed Occupational specialization contributed to social stratification -individuals specialized in various occupations or social roles

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Social Complexity

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Complex societies have: -Large Populations extensive division of labor -Extensive division of labor -Occupational specialization -Social stratification Classes are -ranked groups within hierarchically stratified complex societies

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What are complex societies?

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-Explanations for the rise of complex societies are similar to those to those exploring domestication -Prime movers, or single factors, have been developed to explain the rise of complex societies -These are sometimes seen as applying to the rise of all complex societies across the globe

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Why do we get complex societies?

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Domestication that supposedly gave people free time to invent complex social rules -Irrigation needs in dry areas that required a complex bureaucracy to develop and manage complex canal systems -Population pressure from growing populations that led to the rise of leaders to manage the populations -Social conflict within societies -prime movers rely on unicausal or single cause factors.

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Prime Movers

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-Random hunting -Controlled hunting -Herd hunting -Loose herding -Close Herding -Factory farming

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What are the stages of animal Domestication

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Complex societies leave traces in the archaeological record of -Monumental architecture such as temples or pyramids -Elaborate burials -Artifact concentrations that indicate occupational specification -Regional settlement hierarchies with at least three levels

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What are archaeological Evidence for Complex Societies?

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-Examine the material traces of human activities -Focus on human modification of the physical environment -Interpret cultural variation and cultural change deep into the past from this archaeological record. -Reveal evidence for past forms of human culture that may no longer exist today.

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What Do archaeologists do?

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Archaeologists have changed how they look at the past over time. -used to focus on reconstructing material remains -Then strived to reconstruct the lifeways, or culture of past -Next tried to explain the cultural processes that created a culture and known as processual archaeology -Today, some focus on interpretive archaeology or postprocessual archaeology

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Approaches to studying the past

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-View Archaeology as an objective, empirical science -Use math to examine distribution of material remains over space and time -Emphasize human adaptations to different environments

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Processual Archaeology

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-Emphasize human agency and the power of ideas and values when studying past cultures -Stress symbolic and cognitive aspects of societies -Examine power, domination, and internal contradictions within a society from the archaeological record

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Postprocessual Archaeologists

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*Artifacts are portable objects made, used, or modified by Hominins. *Ecofacts are natural materials/ remains that are byproducts of hominin activities. Usually help understanding diet and subsistence patterns -Common examples: pollen, seeds, charcoal, etc. *Features are nonportable remnants of hominin activities, such as walls, ditches, or mounds *Sites represent a geographic location with the remains of past activities *When examining the archaeological record, archaeologists consider : -Matrix: Te physical medium the surrounds, holds, and supports archaeological remains. -Association: two or more objects found in the same matrix -Provenance" the three- dimensional location of an object within the matrix -Context: evaluation of what happened to an object after it entered the archaeological record.

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Archaeological Record

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the study of how present-day peoples use objects and how these become part of the archaeological record.

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Ethnoarchaeology

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study of how natural and human processes that affected the archaeological record.

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Taphonomy

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-Organic remains do not last as long as stones or other inorganic remains. -Very cold or very dry or very wet climates can preserve organic remains. Transformational Processes affect preservation, including: -Cultural factors such as looting or construction -Natural factors such as animal activities or natural catastrophes

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What Influences Preservation?

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-Interviewing farmers or others who have accidentally encountered sites -Studying historic maps that show where historic buildings once stood. -Surveying a geographical region to fine unknown sites. -GIS (geographical information systems) are used to organize site information.

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How do archaeologists find sites?

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Pedestrian- in a line with a group of people walking and looking for artifacts. Aerial- Flying above looking for any patterns or noticeable differences in the land. Geophysical - Walking using tools and technology to find things Excavation- systematic uncovering of archaeological remains through careful removal of the matrix -It is always destructive

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Types of Surveys

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-Cataloging involves classifying an Object's shape, material, and function -Assemblages are groups of artifacts and features from a particular time and place in a site. Archaeological cultures are constructed by grouping similar assemblages from many sites. -Used to map similarities and differences across space

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Categorizing Archaeological Data

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Refers to any kind of digital information about the past. -Digitalized documents -Digital Photographs -Artifact images -Video and Sound recordings -3D artifact and site reconstructions

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Digital Heritage

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Archaeologists recognize now that the past can have meaning to people living today. -Descendent communities help deepen an understanding of the past. -Conflicts have developed over ownership of the past, especially over excavation of Native American burials.

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Whose Past is it?

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Native America Graves Protection and Repatriation Act -Congress passed NAGPRA in 1990 to protect Native American graves on federal on tribal land. -Federal agencies or federally funded museums must also inventory Native American human remains and cultural objects collected in past years. -Items may be "repatriated" or returned to Native American groups.

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NAGPRA

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Extremists destroy monuments as the Taliban did to the Bamiyan Buddhas in Afghanistan Land development destroys sites through -construction -Mechanized agriculture Looting and the market for stolen antiquities

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How is the past being plundered?

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-Gender archaeology recognizes that traditional archaeologists have often ignored the presence of Women in the past -Collaborative Archaeology projects seek to study the past by working with descendent communities

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Contemporary Trends in Anthropology

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Culture represents patterns of learned behavior and ideas. -Individuals acquire culture as members of society, together with material artifacts and structures created and used by humans. -culture builds on earlier generations, but this heritage can be modified. -Central, unifying concept in anthropology

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Culture

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Socialization is the process of learning to live as a member of a group including: -Mastering skills of interacting with others -Learning how to cope with behavioral rules established by a social group -Enculturation is the process by which humans living with others learn what ways of thinking and feeling are considered appropriate by their respective cultures.

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What is culture

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Culture can borrow delelments from other societies. Human culture did not emerge all at once but evolved over time as humans evolved. -No other living organism relies on culture as their principle means of navigating the world

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What is culture?

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-Learned -shared -patterned -adaptive -symbolic *cultural abilities were added at different times as humans evolved and influenced our evolution

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Human culture is..

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-Transmission: ability to copy a behavior by observing or learning -Memory: ability to remember behaviors -Reiteration: ability to reproduce or imitate behaviors -Innovation: ability to develop new behaviors -Selection: ability to know which behaviors to keep or discard

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Human Capasity for culture depends on:

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Westerners debate culture's role using concepts rooted in phiosophy, such as: -Dualism: reality is two opposing forces -Idealism: ideas and the mind constitute the essence of human nature -Materialism: material activities of our bodies are the essence of human nature -Determinism: one simple force causes complex events Essence: unchanging core of features unique to things of the same kind.

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What is cultures place in the human condition

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-Concept traced to ancient greek phiosopher plato Some tie to the mind and emphasize the mind;s control over the material body. -Others see culture as generated by material factors, such as genes, hormones, and the environment. -Conflict dualism represents the struggle between mind and body

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Mind-Matter Dualism

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Historical because it is shaped by events and reconstructed by every generation -Holistic to anthropologists because it is more than the some of its parts *Holism for anthropologists -Is preferable to dualistic or deterministic views about human culture -Argues that objects and environments interpenetrate and define each other.

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Culture is:

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-Agency refers to the exercise of at least some control of their lives by human beings -Cultural beliefs and practices provide individual humans with resources the need to pursue their own goals. -Humans use symbolic cultural understandings to help resolve ambiguities inherent in everyday life. -Individuals use culture creatively

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Agency

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-Institutions are complex, variable, and enduring forms of cultural practice that organize social life. -Societies are more than the sum of individual actions. -Individual actors are part of groups with dynamic relationships. -Human beings and human.....

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Culture, History, and agency

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-The same object, actions, or events may mean diff thins in other cultures -The human condition is ambiguous -Serious misunderstanding results when one does not realize cultural rules differ -Failure to recognize cultural differences can generate conflict within and between societies.

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Why do cultural differences matter

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The tendency to view the traits, ways, ideas, and values observed in other cultures as: -Invariably inferior -Less natural or logical than those of one's own group -Etoro tribe

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Ethnocentrism

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-Learning about other culture backgrounds -Other cultures have ways of looking at the world that may challenge one's own idea about "truth" -Anthropologists must recognize and respect cultural traditions different than their own

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Can Ethnocentrism be avoided?

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-refers to understanding a culture on its own terms. -Anthropologists use it to study but not judge other cultures. -Most anthropologists recognize that some cultural practices are puzzling while others may be morally troubling.

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Cultural Relativism

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-Anthropologists recognize some cultural practices as trivial (eating insects) of horrifying (genocide). -Other cultural practices have challenged anthropologists to maintain the application of Cultural relativism.

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How do we approach controversial cultural practices?

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-Circumcision, or removal of the male foreskin, is an acceptable practice among many westerners. -Clitoridectomy, or removal of the female clitoris, is not an acceptable practice to most westerners. -Some anthropologists argue that genital cutting is a human rights violation -Need to understand its a cultural value -Cultural relativism makes moral reasoning more complex

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Genital Cutting, Gender, and Human Rights

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Anthropologists distinguish between Language and languages -Language is the abstract property belong to humans as a whole -Languages are the specific ways groups of people communicate. -All modern human groups have fully developed languages -Languages are NOT simply an elaboration of the call systems used by our ancestors -Languages use symbols that arbitrarily stand for something else. -Learning new languages is challenging, not just leaning new labels but also cultural contexts of words.

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How are Culture and Language Related?

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represents SPOKEN language. -Language can be communicated in unspoked ways, including: *writing *morse code * sign language -Human communication is the transfer of info from one person to another.

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Speech

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*Human communication extends beyond unspoken and spoken language -Clothes that people wear -Length of time people keep others waiting for them. -Body gestures, or kinesics -The acceptable distance between two or more people in a social setting, or proxemics.

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How Do Humans Communicate?

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*are languages associated with discrete groups of people -Members do not posses identical knowledge about their language. -Individuals and subgroups use linguistic resources in different ways. -Tensions arise in languages between diversity and commonality *Most cross-cultural differences in language use relate to -Context -Frequency of occurrence

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Speech Communities

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*Arbitrary signs of social meanings. *Symbols mean nothing on their own, they are context dependent. *The ability to use language means being able to learn and use random, arbitrary symbols to communicate.

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Symbols

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*Anthropological linguist Charles Hockett lists six design features of which sic are particularly important *Openness *Arbitrariness: "Cat" is different from "cats" because the "S" makes it plural *Duality of patterning: sounds are meaning les on their own *Displacement: Ability to talk about things that are absent *Semanticity: The way we use language to make sense of our world. *Prevarication: Ability to make up things that might be gramatically correct but make no sense in its meaning.

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What makes Human Language Distinctive?

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*Call systems are shared by humans and other primates *Human and non-human primate call systems are not equal to human language. *Non-human primate call systems do not map onto elements of human symbolic language. *Human call systems are controlled by different part of the brain then language

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Call systems

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-Morphemes: units of meaning -syntax: sentence structure -semantics: meaning -pragmatics: use of language * human languages exhibit patterns at multiple levels, while non-human ones do not.

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Patterning in language involves

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*Children learning languages develop an understanding of: -the rules of grammar -Speech appropriate to a social context *Linguistic competence refers to the mastery of adult grammar. *Communicative competence is the mastery of adult roles for socially and culturally appropriate speech.

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What does it mean to Learn a language?

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*Linguistic relativity principle, of the SAPIR-WHOFF HYPOTHESIS, suggests that language has the power to shape the way people see the world. * Linguistic determinism reduces patterns of thought and culture to the grammatical patterns if the language spoken.

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How does Language affect how we see the world?

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*the study of language in the context of its use and involves -Linguistic contexts: other words, expressions, and sentences surrounding the expression whose meaning one is trying to determine -Non-Linguistic contexts: objects and activities present when one is speaking

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Pragmatics

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*represents a stretch of speech longer than a sentence united by a common theme.

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Discourse

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* study of language use that relies on ethnography to see how speech is constituted by and constitutive of social interaction, focusing on: -practice: views grammar, cultural values, and action linked to human activity -Habits: sees meaning in everyday social activity rather than in grammar

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Ethnopragmatics

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* Linguistic meaning is rooted in practical activity, which carries the burden of meaning. * Different social groups engage in different communicative practices known as discourse genres * Heteroglossia refers to each person's linguistic knowledge and ability to command a range of discourse genres.

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How do we study language in context of use?

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* Pidgin languages develop between members of a community that possess distinct native languages -Represent a language with no native speakers -Exhibit many of the same linguistic features as non-pidgin languages -Involve the radical negotiation of new meanings

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What happens when languages come into contact?

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*Linguistic inequality refers to the view that certain ways of speaking are standard and others are defective and inferior *Language habits of African Americans have been challenged from this percpective

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Linguistic Inequality

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* unwritten rules shared by members of a speech community concerning what kinds of language are valued. *Develop out of the cultural, social, and political histories of the groups the which they belong

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Language Ideology

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*Human life is group life. * Humans depend on each other for survival *Relatedness refers to socially recognized ties that connect people to one another, including -Kinship -Adoption -Marriage -Residence -Family -Sexuality *Forms of relatedness are always embedded in, and shaped by, politics, economics, and world views.

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What is Relatedness?

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* Kinship refers to forms of relatedness believed to come from shared substance and its transmission. *Substance ma be believed to be -Bodily: such as blood, genes, or breast milk -Spiritual: such as the soul, spirit, nurturance, or love

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What is Kinship?

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* focus on ideas about shared substance and its transmission, often thought to take place in the process of sexual reproduction. *Kinship systems help societies maintain social order without central gov *Cross-cultural comparison shows that kinship is not a direct reflection of biology.

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Kinship systems

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*Based on, but not reducible to, the universal biological experiences of mating, birth and nurturance. *Cultural interpretations of the "facts" of human reproduction influence kinship *Culturally recognized relationships based on mating are called marriage and those based on birth are called descent.

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Kinship Principles

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*Refers to principles based on culturally recognized parent-child connections that define the social categories to which people belong *Descent links members of diff generations with one another. *Two major strategies for establishing descent are bilateral descent and unilineal decent.

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Descent

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*Refers to descent formed by people who believe they are related to each other by connections made through their moms and dads equally *Bilateral Descent results in the formation of groups called kindreds that include all relatives from both parents' families.

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Bilateral Descent

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*Refers to the formation of groups called lineages that trace descent through either the mother or the father *Lineages are the consanguineal members of descent groups who believe they can trace their descent from known ancestors *Lineages are corporate groups controlling important property, such as land,

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Unilineal Descent

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* In many societies, lineage relationships have political significance. *Lineages can serve as a foundation of social life. *Matrillineages trace descent through the mother *Patrilineages trace through father and are most common

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Lineage

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*descent groups formed by members who believe they have a common (sometimes mythical) ancestor, even if they cannot secify the genealogical links. *Clans are usually composed of lineages

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Clans

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*Kinship terminologies select certain attributes to define different classes of kin including generation, gender, affinity, colloderality, bifurcation , relative age, gender of the linking relative.

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Kinship Terminologies

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* Mother's sisters kids *Fathers brother's kids *Cant marry because considered like siblings

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Parallel Cousins

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*Mothers brothers kids *Fathers Sisters kids *Common marriage happens because not considered siblings

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Cross Cousins

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*Practices that allow people to transform relationships based on nurturance into relations of kinship.

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Adoption

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* New reproductive technologies influence Western concepts of kinship - in Vitro fertilization -Sperm banks -Surrogate motherhood

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Kinship and Technology

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*Terms used by anthropologists to describe how mating and its consequences are understood and organized in different societies. *Marriage is not synonymous with mating *It is a social process

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Marriage and Family

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*A prototypical marriage -Transforms the status of the participants -Carries implications about permitted sexual access the partners may have to each other -Perpetuates social patterns through the birth or adoption of offspring -Creates relationships between the kin of partners -symbolically markerd

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what is marriage

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*Marriage creates new relationships between the kin of both spouses. -Consanguineal relationships are based on descent -Affinal relationships are created through marriage, or affinity *Endogamy is marriage within a defined social group *Exogamy is marriage outside a defined social group *Divorce is the end of a marriage

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Why is Marriage a social Process?

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*There are four major types of residence patterns: -Neolocal: a married couple sets up a household in a new location -Patrilocal: a married couple sets up a household with the husbands father -Matrilocal: a married couple sets up a household wife's mother -Avunculocal: a married couple sets up a household with the husband's mother's brother.

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Marriage and residence patterns

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*There is cross-cultural variation in the number of spouses a person may have -Monogony - Marriage to only one person at a time -Polygyny - More than one spouse at a time

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Spouse Variation

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*More than one wife

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Polygyny

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* A woman has more than one husband

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Polyandry

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* Marriage in many societies involves the transfer of symbolically important goods *Bridewealth is thetransfer of goods from the family of the groom to the fammily of the bride at marriage *Dowry is thetransfer of wealth, usually from parents to their daughter at the time of her marriage.

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How is Marriage an Economic Exchange?

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!!!!!

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Know all political organization*

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