History of Modern China – Flashcards

11th emperor of Qing Dynasty • Reigned from 1875-1908 • Initiated Hundred Days' Reform (failed 104-day national cultural, political and educational reform movement from 11 June to 21 September 1898 in late Qing Dynasty China) • When Cixi launted a coup in 1898, he was put under house arrest until his death • 1898: Variety of thinkers, all students of Kang Youwei (argues that Conficus must be understood as revolutionary) • For 100 days, they are able to put through an astonishing vision of social change • Government must be reformed: transform the way that people dress (ie. people must wear modern clothing-British military uniforms) • Current dress was being seen as too difficult to move in: long sleeves, long gowns-clothing made it hard to move fast, hard to even think fast • To get rid of this passivity, people should wear military uniforms (vigorous, can run in, modern) • Argued that China should become a republic and that emperors should remain a part of this

• Last Qing Emperor-Manchu • Abdicated in 1912 as a result of 1911 revolution • Ascends thrown of Manchukuo empire in 1934, having been put in place by Japanese • Seen by almost everyone in the country as a great disgrace, causing resentment of KMT who had allowed Japan to invade Manchuria

• Powerful, charismatic woman who unofficially but effectively controlled the Manchu Qing Dynasty in China for 47 years, from 1861 to 1908 • Refused to adopt Western models of government • Rejected the Hundred Days' Reform as impractical and detrimental to dynastic power and placed the Guangxu Emperor under house arrest for supporting reformers o Too radical for empress Dowager Cixi o She stages a coup ending this 100 days o For a time, this puts a damper on the possibility of change • Kang Youwei goes into exile, continues to promote ideas of change

• Treaty following the First Sino-Japanese War, signed on April 18, 1895 • The terms of the treaty were disastrous for China, one of many during the "century of humiliation" • Korea was made a Japanese protectorate Also tries to make China a protectorate of Japan • Qing had to pay Japan 200 million taels in war indemnities and added 4 treaty ports (including Chongqing, and ceded to Japan Taiwan, the Pescadores, and Liaodong region in Manchuria

• Set of demands made by the Empire of Japan sent to the nominal government of China in 1915, resulting in two treaties with Japan on May 25, 1915 • List was presented to Yuan Shikai • Japan had gained a large sphere of interest in northern China and Manchuria through its victories in the First Sino-Japanese War and the Russo-Japanese War, and had thus joined the ranks of the European imperialist powers in their scramble to establish political and economic domination over China • Japan calls for more room for expansion in China • Development of industry in Japan

Sun Yat-sen: father of the Chinese republican revolution • Promoted revolution for decades until it finally occurred successfully in 1911 He leaves China around 1895: from abroad, he is seen as a key leader in the ongoing struggle of revolutionaries to overthrow the Qing o Lack of national consciousness but of consciousness of commonality o Very center of his political philosophy was a deep commitment to republicanism o Spent time in Hong Kong and Honolulu: enabled him to foster overseas Chinese communities o Goes around the world to London to raise money, eventually returns to China and becomes the initial, interim president of the Republic of China

• 1859-1916 • An important Chinese general and politician Beiyan Army Sun Yat-sen offered Yuan Shikai the leadership • Famous for his influence during the late Qing Dynasty • His role in the events leading up to the abdication of the last Qing Emperor of China • His autocratic rule as the second President of the Republic of China (following Sun Yatsen) • His short-lived attempt to revive the Chinese monarchy, with himself as the "Great Emperor of China." • Qing turn to Yuan Shikai to bring him to the national empire cause • Begin to ask if he would become the president if he were to force the Manchus to abdicate • Yuan Shikai suspends parliament and local governments and infamously decides that it would revise the constitution, sets in motion an unsuccessful attempt to proclaim himself emperor

• Female activist in late 19th/early 20th century • Joined the movement of women concerned about women's rights and who sought education • Her family was western influenced and her mother promoted education • Abandoned husband and children in 1904 to go to Japan to learn about science and modern society • Returns in China in 1906 to carry out a revolution against the Qing, but fails • Rather than flee, allows herself to be caught and beheaded • Showed the potential of citizens to appropriate and foster their own rights

• 1858-1927 • Chinese scholar, noted calligrapher and prominent political thinker and reformer of the late Qing Dynasty • He led movements to establish a constitutional monarchy • His ideas inspired a reformation movement that was supported by the Guangxu Emperor but loathed by Empress Dowager Cixi (Hundred Days Reform) • Although he continued to advocate for constitutional monarchy after the foundation of the Republic of China (1912-1949), Kang's political ideology was never put into practical application. • Confucius offers a vision of potentially revolutionary change • Arguments for women's rights and participation in politics • Kang Youwei had made the argument for changing hair and clothes •

As an advocate of constitutional monarchy, Liang was unhappy with the governance of the Qing Government and wanted to change the status quo in China. He organized reforms with Kang Youwei by putting their ideas on paper and sending them to Emperor Guangxu (光緒帝, 1871-1908; reigned 1875-1908) of the Qing Dynasty. This movement is known as the Wuxu Reform or the Hundred Days' Reform. Their proposal asserted that China was in need of more than "self-strengthening", and called for many institutional and ideological changes such as getting rid of corruption and remodeling the state examination system. Liang thus was a major influence in the debates on democracy in China.[3] This proposal soon ignited a frenzy of disagreement, and Liang became a wanted man by order of Empress Dowager Cixi (慈禧太后,1835-1908), the leader of the political conservative faction who later took over the government as regent. Cixi strongly opposed reforms at that time and along with her supporters, condemned the "Hundred Days' Reform" as being too radical. contributions to journalism

• 1881-1936 • One of the major Chinese writers of the 20th century • Considered by many to be the leading figure of modern Chinese literature, he wrote in baihua (白話) (the vernacular) as well as classical Chinese • Lu Xun was a fiction writer, editor, translator,critic, essayist and poe • Lu Xun's works exerted a very substantial influence after the May Fourth Movement to such a point that he was highly acclaimed by the Communist regime after 1949 • Mao Zedong himself was a lifelong admirer of Lu Xun's works • Though sympathetic to communist ideas, Lu Xun never actually joined the Chinese Communist Party. Like many leaders of the May Fourth Movement, he was primarily a leftist and liberal.

• Foremost champion of Chinese literary reform • Calls upon individuals to write in the vernacular language, leave classical language behind • Create a modern language based on speech o Goes back to China and becomes a leading intellectual o Great admirer of Confucian tradition: sees a Confucian mindset in Wilson, natural sympathy between Wilson and Chinese republic of this time

• Anti-imperialist, cultural, and political movement growing out of student demonstrations in Beijing on May 4, 1919, protesting the Chinese government's weak response to the Treaty of Versailles, especially the Shandong Problem (Chinese diplomatic failure at the Paris Peace Conference became the incident that touched off the outbreak of the May Fourth Movement) • These demonstrations sparked national protests and marked the upsurge of Chinese nationalism • Over 3,000 students of Peking University and other schools gathered together in front of Tiananmen and held a demonstration • The general opinion was that the Chinese government was "spineless"

• Following First United Front, KMT wanted to take back the rest of China by defeating the warlords • Lasted from 1926-1928 and directly followed the United Front • Exemplified nationalist ferver at the time • United Front ends when KMT implements "White Terror" in 1927 to get rid of CCP • At end of Northern Expedition, Chiang Kai-Shek emerged with much more power but constant opposition • Many warlords only joined KMT during the Northern Expedition, but were not particularly loyal, resulting in frail power for KMT

• Chinese communist, revolutionary, and political theorist • The founding father of the People's Republic of China from its establishment in 1949, he governed the country as Chairman of the Communist Party of China until his death • converted China into a single-party socialist state, with industry and business being nationalized under state ownership and socialist reforms implemented in all areas of society • Politically a Marxist-Leninist, his theoretical contribution to the ideology along with his military strategies and brand of policies are collectively known as Maoism • Mao enacted sweepingland reform, overthrowing the feudal landlords before seizing their large estates and dividing the land into people's communes. He proceeded to lead a nationwide political campaign known as the Great Leap Forward from 1958 through to 1961, designed to modernize and industrialize the country, however agrarian problems worsened by his policies led to widespread famine • In 1966, he initiated the Cultural Revolution, a program to weed out counter-revolutionary elements in Chinese society, which continued until his death

• Leader of the KMT, close ally of Sun Yatsen • Leader of nationalist movement • Eventually loses and heads to Taiwan • Lack of commitment to keeping out Japanese/imperialists helped lead to eventual downfall • Failed to stop the CCP after numerous attempts, e.g. "White Terror" • Also aligned with the CCP twice during the two United Fronts

• In November of 1919, a young woman of the Zhao family in Changsha took her life rather than accept the marriage her parents arranged for her. For personal reasons that you may surmise from the above paragraph, this inspired the young Mao, already a respected liberal intellectual, to write a flurry of articles about the event. The first of these articles I have translated thus: • Something of tremendous importance has happened in society, something that we don't want to overlook. We must discuss the interlocking reasons behind this. That is, the matter of "death" has two kinds of understanding: one is to die of natural causes -- death by old age; one is the death that opposes nature -- the premature death, the violent death, they belong to this kind. Miss Zhao's death, her suicide, was a violent death belonging to the latter category. A person's suicide is totally determined by their environment. Was it Miss Zhao's intention to seek death? No, it was to seek life. Miss Zhao ultimately took her life, but only as compelled by her circumstances. Her circumstances were: 1) A member of Chinese society, 2) residing with the Zhao family on Nanyang Street in Changsha, 3) a total unwillingness to reside with her husband's family at the Wu Orange Garden. These three things were three sides of an iron net, three parts of a system, where Miss Zhao was trapped in the middle. Regardless of how she chose life, there was no way to live. The opposite of life is death, so Miss Zhao died. If any one these three things were not part of this iron net, or if the iron net were to open, Miss Zhao would never have died. 1) If Miss Zhao's parents, even if by force, had given her free will, Miss Zhao would never have died. 2) If Miss Zhao's parents -- and also her husband's family -- had not forced their decision on her, or had illustrated the logic behind their decision, or had respected her natural rights at all, Miss Zhao would never have died. 3) Although her parents and her husband's family did not respect her free will, suppose public opinion was in strong support -- another world that accommodated escape and exile, and recognized escape and exile as a reputable act... if not for so-called "repute," Miss Zhao also never would have died. But now Miss Zhao is truly dead, the three sides of the iron net (society, her family, her in-laws) firmly around her, no way to live, only to die. In Tokyo last year, it happened that a noblewoman and a driver could only express their love through mutual suicide. The Tokyo news regarded this unworthy of publication, but the discussion of intellectuals stretched for months regardless. What happened yesterday is immense. Through it we can see the corruption within the institution of marriage, the darkness within society, imagination incapable of independence, love incapable of freedom. We who have discussed every kind of study should discuss this, the stuff of life. Mr. Tianlai and Mr. Jiangong already wrote a primer yesterday, I have made some especially crude comments now. I hope the conclusion of this enthusiastic discussion of a young woman, a martyr for freedom and a martyr for love, comes to a single cry: Injustice!

• The painful custom of wrapping women's feet and deforming them into a smaller, more "attractive" form • Particularly representative of women's oppression • Reformist women usually unbound/refused to bind their feat • By early 20th century, women began unbounding their feet • Sisterhoods were formed around women with unbound feet who struggled to find men who did not like their "large" feet

• 1936 Xi'an Incident: An important turning point in Chinese modern history, took place in the city of Xi'an during the Chinese Civil War between the ruling Kuomintang (KMT) and the insurgent Chinese Communist Party and just before the Second Sino-Japanese War • Chiang Kai-shek, the leader of the Kuomintang was arrested by Marshal Zhang Xueliang, a former warlord of Manchuria, and Commander of the North Eastern Army who had fought against the Japanese occupation of Manchuria • The incident led to a truce between the Nationalists and the Communists so as to form a united front against the threat posed by Japan. • Before the Xi'an incident, the Chinese Communist Party had established itself in Shaanxi province following being driven from Jiangxi and other regions in southern China in 1934. • seen as turning point for the Chinese Communist Party, as before the incident the party itself was facing a new round of assaults by Kuomintang forces

Peng Pai: key Communist leader in village organizing at this time • That honor belongs to Peng Pai: first person to undertake peasant organizing • Son of a landlord but perceived with mistrust and hostility • Focused on improving the lives of peasants in Japan: period of high-tide, deep growth of socialism in Japan • Japan new village movement • Peng Pai would emulate this when he went back to China • Japan new village movement studied the traditional countryside-hoped to improve it through a Socialist reformation • Somehow society had gotten out of whack, the countryside should again be an important leader in society • Part of the student group in Japan • First enters the Communist party but then is fired from his job • This leads him to look for a new job • Began his career by using a grammaphone to play music and songs to attract villagers to his meetings • Announces to the peasants that the land he is cultivating is for them: public gesture

• Chinese revolutionary socialist, educator, philosopher, and author, who co-founded the Chinese Communist Party (with Li Dazhao) in 1921, serving from 1921 to 1927 as its first General Secretary • Chen was a leading figure in the anti-imperialist Xinhai Revolution and the May Fourth Movement for Science and Democracy • Leading Communist forces participating in the Northern Expedition, conflict with Chiang Kai-shek leading to the April 12 Incident and massacre of Communists, conflict with Comintern leading to expulsion from Communist Party. Becomes leader ofTrotskyists in China. • Arrest by Kuomintang authorities and imprisonment. • Editor of New Youth Magazine, key journal of politics and dean of humanities at Peking University • Center of education happened at the forefront of the appropriation and creation of new types of learning • Key role in founding of Communist party • Mr. Science and Mr. Democracy, two forces of positive social change

1942 • A conference in which Mao announced that all art should be used as a tool for the party to carry out revolution • Broadly part of the Yan'an Rectification campaign • Writers should have in their mind the necessity that the art they create should reflect the class nature of society and further the goals of revolution • Any claims from a writer or other intellectual to create "art for art's sake" is illegitimate • Significance: Mao defines the relationship between the party and intellectuals, as well as the role of literature and all artistic and cultural production within the party

• Mass murder and war rape that occurred during the six-week period following the Japanese capture of the city of Nanking (Nanjing), the former capital of the Republic of China, on December 13, 1937 during the Second Sino-Japanese War • During this period, hundreds of thousands of Chinese civilians and disarmed soldiers were murdered by soldiers of the Imperial Japanese Army • Widespread rape and looting also occurred • Historians and witnesses have estimated that 250,000 to 300,000 people were killed • Several of the key perpetrators of the atrocities, at the time labelled as war crimes, were later tried and found guilty at the Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal, and were subsequently executed • event remains a contentious political issue, as various aspects of it have been disputed by some historical revisionistsand Japanese nationalists,[2] who have claimed that the massacre has been either exaggerated or wholly fabricated for propaganda purposes

• Took on the responsibility of serving into the breach and serve as leader on the eastern front against Japanese in the 30s • Part of the left faction of the GMD • Convinced that Chiang Kai-Shek was becoming a dictator • Saw economy as fundamental for China to develop • Believes in cooperation with Japan to achieve long-term goal of economic improvement • Wanted to use Japanese occupation as a way to develop industry • Forms a clear alliance with Japan • Dies before end of war • Consensus that his government would have been more stable than Chiang Kai Shek's Wang remained inside the Kuomintang, but continued to have disagreements with Chiang until Japan invaded China in 1937, after which he accepted an invitation from the Japanese Empire to form a Japanese-supported collaborationist government in Nanjing. Wang served as the head of state for this Japanese puppet government until he died, shortly before the end of World War II. His collaboration with the Japanese has often been considered treason against China

• Madame Chiang Kai-shek 1934 • politician, painter and the chairman of Fu Jen Catholic University • youngest and the last surviving of the three Soong sisters, she played a prominent role in the politics of the Republic of China and was the sister-in-law of Sun Yat-sen, the leader of the Republic of China preceding her husband • Madame Chiang initiated the New Life Movement ( attempted to counter Communism ideology with a mix of traditional Confucianism, nationalism and authoritarianism that have some similarities to fascism. • It rejected individualism and Western democratic values and opposed socialism and communism. It also aimed to build up morale in a nation that was besieged with corruption, factionalism, and opium addiction. Some goals included courtesy to neighbors, following rules set by the government, keeping streets clean, conserving energy, and so forth • Combined anti-Communism, Christianity, and state Confucianism • Put forward by Mme Chiang Kai-shek and her husband • Key Confucian values must be made modern, become the means of disciplining the nation • Spelled out in 95 rules which the New Life movement issued • Govern daily behavior: people instructed to be prompt, button clothes, etc. • We should not talk about guns and canons • Way to transform the nation and society

• 1923-1926: United front Alliance between CCP and GMD The First United Front (a.k.a. the KMT-CPC Alliance) of the Kuomintang (KMT) and the Communist Party of China (CPC) was formed in 1922 as an alliance to end warlordism in China. Together, they formed the National Revolutionary Army and set out in 1926 on the Northern Expedition. The CPC joined the KMT as individuals, making use of KMT's superiority in numbers to help spread communism. The KMT, on the other hand, wanted to control the communists from within. Both parties had their own aims and the Front was unsustainable. In 1927, Nationalist Field Marshal (Generalissimo) Chiang Kai-shek purged the Communists from the Front while the Northern Expedition was still half-complete. This initiated a civil war between the two parties which lasted until the Second United Front was formed in 1936 to prepare for the coming Second Sino-Japanese War The Second United Front was the brief alliance between the Chinese Nationalists Party (Kuomintang, or KMT) and Communist Party of China (CPC) to resist the Japanese invasion during the Second Sino-Japanese War, which suspended the Chinese Civil War from 1937 to 1946

• Military retreat undertaken by the Red Army of the Communist Party of China, the forerunner of the People's Liberation Army, to evade the pursuit of the Kuomintang (KMT or Chinese Nationalist Party) army • There was not one Long March, but a series of marches, as various Communist armies in the south escaped to the north and west. • The most well known is the march from Jiangxi province which began in October, of 1934. The First Front Army of theChinese Soviet Republic, led by an inexperienced military commission, was on the brink of annihilation by GeneralissimoChiang Kai-shek's troops in their stronghold in Jiangxi province • The Communists, under the eventual command of Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai, escaped in a circling retreat to the west and north, which reportedly traversed some 12,500 kilometers (8,000 miles) over 370 days.[1] The route passed through some of the most difficult terrain of western China by traveling west, then north, to Shaanxi. • The Long March began Mao Zedong's ascent to power, whose leadership during the retreat gained him the support of the members of the party • The bitter struggles of the Long March, which was completed by only about one-tenth of the force that left Jiangxi, would come to represent a significant episode in the history of the Communist Party of China, and would seal the personal prestige of Mao and his supporters as the new leaders of the party in the following decades • Almost no women • Army and other men who are working to serve the army • Tragedy of the journey • Mao's second wife gives birth to a child on the march • Child is left to a peasant family, never heard from again • Yang Kaihui had been arrested and shot by the Guamingdong • Mao was able to be united with two of their three children in 1946 • Underscoring the real personal sacrifice and tragedies that commitment by Mao and others to the cause of organizing a new society creates • Often celebrated as a keystone in the myth and valor of the Communist party • Within communist writing, the sacrifice of it becomes mythic • Party leaders and others who are left back in the Jiangxi soviet • Those that stayed behind had to deal with the difficult circumstances of the Soviet's demise, continued to live with Guamingdong's attacks • Many of those survived whereas those that undertook the Long March did not • Guangxi soviet destroyed

• Novella written by Lu Xun in 1921 • Ah Q is the main character who is slow to get with modern times • Ah Q is a metaphor for the Chinese people: they are humiliated, but then deceive themselves into believing they were actually successful The story traces the "adventures" of Ah Q, a man from the rural peasant class with little education and no definite occupation. Ah Q is famous for "spiritual victories", Lu Xun's euphemism for self-talk and self-deception even when faced with extreme defeat or humiliation. Ah Q is a bully to the less fortunate but fearful of those who are above him in rank, strength, or power. He persuades himself mentally that he is spiritually "superior" to his oppressors even as he succumbs to their tyranny and suppression. Lu Xun exposes Ah Q's extreme faults as symptomatic of the Chinese national character of his time. The ending of the piece - when Ah Q is carted off to execution for a minor crime - is equally poignant and satirical In addition, Lu Xun's novel entitled The True Story of Ah Q characterizes Chinese citizens as feeble, vulnerable, and illusory. Lu uses this story to critique China's national traits, employing the character of Ah Q as a lens for better understanding China's backwardness and the rudimentary nature of Confucian tradition. In the story, Ah Q behaves is sexist towards women, often getting drunk and starting brawls with other townspeople, and sees himself as superior to most individuals. Lu Xun utilizes Ah Q to personify the social traditions of Chinese culture that need to be transformed. The writings of Lu Xun and others intellectuals that became popular during this time period ignited a desire among Chinese scholars to create change by overturning the traditional Chinese values and replacing them with democratic, Western ideals.

• Following her mother's example, Ding Ling became an activist at an early age • Ding Ling early repudiated traditional Chinese family practices by refusing to marry her cousin who had been chosen to become her husband. • She rejected the commonly accepted view that parents as the source of the child's body are its owners, and she ardently asserted that she owned and controlled her own body • Although she never joined the Chinese Communist Party, in 1932, the year after her 'boyfriend', Hu Yepin, an impoverished worker, poet and Communist activist, had been executed in jail by the Kuomintang, she became heavily involved with them, and almost all of her fiction after this time was in support of its goals.[ • By then, Ding Ling had become well known as the author of Miss Sophia's Diary (莎菲女士的日記, Shāfēi Nüshì de Rìjì), published in 1927, in which a young woman describes her unhappiness with her life and confused romantic and sexual feelings. • Active in the Communist revolutionary cause, she was placed under house arrest in Shanghai by the Kuomintang for a three-year period from 1933 to 1936. • Long after the defeat of Chiang Kai-Shek's Nationalist government she suffered even harsher treatment throughout her literary career because of the shifting Communist Party politics and power struggles. • Always a political activist, in 1957 she was denounced as a "rightist" and her fiction and essays were banned. She spent five years in jail during the Cultural Revolution and was sentenced to do manual labour on a farm for twelve years before being "rehabilitated" in 1978 o Key figure among female intellectuals o Extremely long life, does encapsulate drama of the 20th century o Born to a traditional gentry lineage o Goes through a series of purges and rehabilitations o Representatives of political and social turbulence: her father had studied in Japan, passed lowest level of imperial exams o Her family was able to provide her with education o Ding Ling attends modern school, her mother attends as well o Clear that China needs reform: they form groups dedicated to the rescue of China (female groups) o Her mother had bound feet, Ding Ling did not: mother unbinds her feet o Together they work through the pain and go on as natural footed women o 1919: Age 16, Ding Ling (with remarkable support of her mother), she flees from Hunan and goes to Shanghai: experiments with free love and writing o Moves to Beijing and audits some classes on modern literature (her mother sends her money): has a beneficent landlord who was willing to let the rent go in exchange for conversations about writers o Beginning to think of herself much more as a writer o Sustained or exhausted by love and writing o She begins living with another 19 year old, a man: they would share years of affection (reflects on naivety of this time for both themselves and the country) o She and Hu were in love but they were too young o Acting in movies was one opportunity for women to undertake o Heroine in her first story, like Ding Ling herself, is a young girl from Hunan • In a certain of radicals who praise her for cutting her hair short, taking on a modern body posture • Praised as China's Sofia • Becomes interested in cinema: symbol of modern sensibility • Represents new lifestyle, something which can be consumed o From the late Qing through the 1930's, most popular movies • Example of a modern woman • Sexual compromises • She dies in the end o Revolutionary new lifestyle is happening, but is it worth it? What is the new value of this kind of life? o Ding Ling begins writing Ms. Sofie's diary o Hu is largely unsuccessful but does find work as an editor and publisher o He is the one who seeks out connections with radicals in Shanghai and other cities o He gets a job as a high school teacher, 1929 leaves Ding Ling • He becomes a political activist, she finds this to be a difficult and courageous act o 1930, Ding Ling has his child (she leaves her child with her mother) o Hu is shot by the radicals, she falls back on her mother

• Aka the Communist International or Third International • "Fight by all available means, including armed force, for the overthrow of the international bourgeoisie and for the creation of an international Soviet republic as a transition stage to the complete abolition of the State." • Comintern helped CCP establish itself in early years The Communist International, abbreviated as Comintern and also known as the Third International (1919-1943), was an international communist organization initiated in Moscow during March 1919. The International intended to fight "by all available means, including armed force, for the overthrow of the international bourgeoisie and for the creation of an international Soviet republic as a transition stage to the complete abolition of the State.

• First female member of the Chinese Revolutionary Alliance (also known as "The Tongmenghui", a secret society and underground resistance movement organized by Sun Yat-sen and Song Jiaoren in Tokyo, Japan, on 20 August 1905) and served as a leader in the earlier feminist movement. • As having made great contributions to overthrowing the monarchy and establishing the Republic of China (1912-1949), she was met by Sun Yat-sen, who praised her as "a heroine in the founding of the Republic of China" • Started the Journal of Association of Chinese Female Students in Japan to advocate revolution, and later established Ten-day Vernacular Newspaper for Women and Yadong Repository and managed the resume publication of Chinese Women Report. • In 1913, Tang started Women's Rights Daily, the first newspaper for women in Hunan and successively set up many girls' schools, which was the first sign to start newspaper and establish schools in Hunan's female community. • Widow who first went to Japan self-funded but later wins a scholarship: studies in Tokyo at famous female college, school where several hundred women go on to become leading figures in politics • Stays in Japan, only in newspaper that Tang reads abaout Xiaoqing's execution: so devastated that she has to go to the hospital • Heads womens' suffrage alliance, joins Jiang's socialist party • Song Jiaoren becomes a key figure and political alliance to Tang • At 1905, she is at a meeting in Tokyo where the alliance is created • Tang Qunying asks "what about women's rights?" o Will this party support women's right to vote o Vast majority of men were uncertain o Tang takes the stage and slaps Song Jiaoren: symbol of female outrage o Not until 1947 would Chinese women gain the right to vote

The 14th Dalai Lama was not formally enthroned until 17 November 1950, during the People's Republic of China invasion of the kingdom. In 1951, he and the Tibetan government formally accepted the Seventeen Point Agreement by which Tibet was formally incorporated into the People's Republic of China. Fearing for his life in the wake of a revolt in Tibet in 1959, the 14th Dalai Lama fled to India where he has led a government in exile since

• Chinese Village, Socialist State • Co-op leader • Although Boss Geng and Mao's shared vision that a single village co-op would increase agricultural production, reduce class divisions, and create a faster path to socialism, in reality, money was actually decreasing and the rift between the villagers and their leaders was as strong as ever • Village leaders such as Boss Geng obeyed Mao's orders to form communes and collectives despite the fact that no progress was being made. Peasants blindly followed the demands of their village leaders in an attempt to appease the state, even though they realized that many of the party's economic promises would not be carried out

Major research university located in Beijing, and a member of the C9 League. It is the first established modern national university of China. It was founded as Imperial University of Peking in 1898 as a replacement of the ancient Guozijian (Chinese: 國子監; pinyin: guózǐjiàn).[2] By 1920 it had become a center for progressive thought. Today, Peking University is frequently placed as one of the best universities in China by many national and international rankings.[3][4][5] In addition to academics, Peking University is especially renowned for its campus grounds,[6][7] and the beauty of its traditional Chinese architecture.[8] Throughout its history, the university has educated and hosted many prominent modern Chinese thinkers, including figures such as: Lu Xun, Mao Zedong, Gu Hongming, Hu Shih, Li Dazhao, and Chen Duxiu.[9] Peking University was influential in the birth of China's New Culture Movement, May Fourth Movement, the Tiananmen Square protest of 1989 and many other significant events.[10]

• A period in 1956 in the People's Republic of China[1] during which the Communist Party of China (CPC) encouraged its citizens to openly express their opinions of the communist regime • Differing views and solutions to national policy were encouraged based on the famous expression by Communist Party Chairman Mao Zedong: "The policy of letting a hundred flowers bloom and a hundred schools of thought contend is designed to promote the flourishing of the arts and the progress of science" • After this brief period of liberalization, Mao Zedong abruptly changed course • The crackdown continued through 1957 as an Anti-Rightist Campaign against those who were critical of the regime and its ideology. • Those targeted were publicly criticized and condemned to prison labor camps.[4] Mao remarked at the time that he had "enticed the snakes out of their caves." • The first part of the phrase is often remembered in the West as "let a thousand flowers bloom". It is used to refer to an orchestrated campaign to flush out dissidents by encouraging them to show themselves as critical of the regime, and then subsequently imprison them.

o Successes that the party had enjoyed up to this time, it is shocking that the party moves from this success to pure terror o Changes in the countryside were happening o Life is changing for people throughout countryside o Much of the changes in the move from coops to communes is happening quickly o Peasants would respond only to increased material incentives o Peasants need to know that they are going to get good prices for their materials o Argued for a shift to a light industry o Able to produce quick turnover capital and a substantial profit, providing a pool of money for the speedy development of industry o Late 1950's, pace of transformation is made much faster (going against the council of many leaders against the party) o Mao's demonstration of being a paramount leader o Move to cooperatives o Move toe higher-level collective o Move to communes o Communes enlarged o Fundamental Maoist belief leads to transformation o Similar types of movements in science as well o This is what would lead to true disaster for the country o Kang Shung: ultra leftist-one of the main supporters of the cultural revolution o Thousands of untrained peasants brought in to main new scientific faculties o Defying book learning o This type of revolutionary voluntarism is being promoted throughout the country o Students who are deliberately making mistakes calculating square roots o Children at a primary school are developing new plots, carrying out scientific advancement o Enormous increases in grain and steel production: two generals that would modernize China (according to Mao) o Movement throughout the entire country o People are turning in all their metal possessions o Furnaces are fired by wood, enormous deforestation taking place in many areas o Any metal that is melted down at these low temperatures can only produce junk o All of the material produced is useless Peasants are mechanizing their work by inventing contraptions Tractors made out of wooden pulleys, rice-planting machines (all made out of wood) o Backyard furnace movement: waste of time and money o Some of the money that had been going to agricultural center is diverted to this ineffective industrialization o Main problems of Great Leap come from the aim to try and produce grain 1958-1961: Social and economic movement

• 228 Incident by Kuomintang (KMT), or 2/28 for short, was an anti-government uprising in Taiwan that began on February 27, 1947 which was violently suppressed by the KMT-led Republic of China government and which resulted in the massacre of numerous civilians, beginning on February 28, or 2/28 Causes second white terror in Taiwan • Estimates of the number of deaths vary from 10,000 to 30,000 or more • The incident marked the beginning of the Kuomintang's White Terror period in Taiwan, in which thousands more inhabitants vanished, died, or were imprisoned • This incident is one of the most important events in Taiwan's modern history, and is a critical impetus for the Taiwan independence movement. • In 1945, 50 years of Japanese rule of Taiwan ended due to Japan's loss in World War II, and in October the United States on behalf of the Allied Forces handed temporary administrative control of Taiwan to the Kuomintang-administered Republic of China(ROC) under General Order No. 1 to handle the surrender of Japanese troops and ruling administration • Local inhabitants became resentful of what they perceived as a high handed and frequently corrupt KMT authorities inclined to the arbitrary seizure of private property and economic mismanagement.

Demonstrates ability of China to achieve significant technological progress at a time of domestic turmoil (during Great Cultural Revolution). Also demonstrates Party's ability to promote intellectual initiatives in one arena (defense), while allowing rejection of intellectualism in other aspects of life 1964: China detonates its first atomic bomb Created by Chinese scientists, no help from the Soviet Union

• The population control policy of the People's Republic of China (PRC) • It restricts urban couples to only one child, while allowing additional children in several cases, including twins, rural couples, ethnic minorities, and couples who are both only children themselves • This policy was introduced in 1978 and initially applied from 1979. It was created by the Chinese government to alleviate social, economic, and environmental problems in China,[4] and authorities claim that the policy has prevented more than 250 million births between 1980 and 2000,[2] and 400 million births from about 1979 to 2011 • The policy has been implicated in an increase in forced abortions,[8] female infanticide, and underreporting[9] of female births, and has been suggested as a possible cause behind China's sex imbalance • The policy will remain in place for at least another decade (at least until 2015).

• Controlled flow of people between urban and rural areas • Individuals categorized as either "urban" or "rural" worker • Needed to apply to change category • Having an urban or rural hukou during the Great Leap forward could have meant life or death. • Could not receive benefits if trying to work outside of government-commanded hukou • Caused rural citizens to become essentially an underclass • In 1980, after SOE collapse, 200 million Chinese lived outside of their hukou—signs of desperation Created in 1958 by CCP

• Mass paramilitary social movement of young people in the People's Republic of China (PRC), who were mobilized by Mao Zedong in 1966 and 1967, during the Cultural Revolution • Cultural Revolution Group directed the Red Guards to attack the 'Four Olds' of Chinese society (old customs, old culture, old habits and old ideas). For the rest of the year, Red Guards marched across China in a campaign to eradicate the 'Four Olds'. Old books and art were destroyed, museums were ransacked, and streets were renamed with new revolutionary names and adorned with pictures and the sayings of Mao.[10] Many famous temples, shrines, and other heritage sites in Beijing were attacked • Attacks on culture quickly descended into attacks on people. Ignoring guidelines in the 'Sixteen Articles' that stipulated that persuasion rather than force were to be used to bring about the Cultural Revolution, officials in positions of authority and perceived 'bourgeois elements' were denounced and suffered physical and psychological attacks.[10]Intellectuals were to suffer the brunt of these attacks.

• A soldier whose death is celebrated by the party as a paragon of sacrifice • Killed my a falling telephone at age 22 in 1962 • His diary is published by the party propaganda machine (it was fake) • Claims his highest aspiration was to serve as a little screw that would work within the machinery of the party • Taken as an example for people to follow • Part of a larger scale propaganda movement due to concern the PLA had lots its revolutionary spirit

• short story by the Chinese author Ding Ling, in which a young woman describes, through diary entries, her thoughts and emotions, particularly about relationships, sexuality, and identity. • Written in 1927 • A major influence on the story was Ding Ling's personal experiences at that time, including depression, exhaustion, and impoverishment • More generally, Ding Ling was passing from the milieu of a girls' schools to the male-dominated literary scene and involvement with some of China's most sophisticated male writers • The major subject matter of Miss Sophia's Diary is a person's thoughts and feelings. The "interior" nature of the story is reinforced by its setting in a tuberculosis sanatorium • Much of the diary concerns Miss Sophia's romantic attraction and sexual desire, and even reveals her bisexuality. More generally, the diary displays rapid swings of mood and outlook, and captures complex ambivalence of the subject about virtually everything in her life, what one scholar called "the chaos of personality." • Unorthodox perspective on basic aspects of life. It expresses frank, unflattering views of the male gende • The story shows a person in all her complexity and contradictions. For instance, it shows how Miss Sophia is simultaneously able to exercise power over others, and yet is powerless. A recurring motif is that she has the power to command the attention of others, but not to make them understand her • landmark in the evolving role of women in China during the era marked by the New Culture Movement and May Fourth Movement. "Miss Sophia's Diary" • Think about Sophia and her father difficult relationship and attitude toward the two main men in her life • Nice guy: Weidi • Overseas, Chinese student: Ling Jishi, who she is pursuing throughout most of the story • In the end, she rejects and denounces him as the worst possible man in the world • Her ardor in both pursuit and denial of him • Sophia: "His soul is completely degraded" o He falls short of her romantic idealism

• Key CCP leader from 1978 onwards • Never held highest rang, but was the paramount leader from 1978-1997 • With CCP from the beginning—studies in France before • Opened up economy—created Special Economic Zones in 1980 in fmall villages • In 1992, carries out Southern Investigation to meet with the people, like emperors from the past • Does tour during time when reform is being questioned • Negotiated getting Hong Kong back in 1997 Developed Socialism with Chinese characteristics and ledChinese economic reform through a synthesis of theories that became known as the "socialist market economy". Deng opened China to foreign investment, the global market and limited private competition. He is generally credited with developing China into one of the fastest growing economies in the world for over 30 years and raising the standard of living of hundreds of millions of Chinese

• Theatre play notable for its involvement in Chinese politics during the Cultural Revolution. • Wu Han, who wrote the play, was a historian (and a municipal politician in Beijing) who focused on the Ming Dynasty • Wu Han wrote an article portraying Hai Rui (Hai Jui), a Ming minister who was imprisoned for criticizing the emperor, as the hero. Wu later adapted his article into a Peking opera play, which was first performed in 1961.[1] The play is a tragedy in which an honest official carries the complaints of the people to the emperor at the expense of his career. It portrays Hai as an efficient magistrate who requests an audience with the emperor, but who then criticizes the Emperor directly for tolerating the corruption and abuses perpetuated by other officials in the imperial government. The emperor is so offended by Hai's criticism that he dismisses Hai from office,[2] but he is restored to office after the emperor dies.[3] • The play was initially praised by Mao Zedong • After the play's initial performance, critics began to interpret it as an allegory for Peng Dehuai's criticism of Mao during the 1959 Lushan Conference, in which Peng's criticism of Mao's Great Leap Forward lead Mao to purge Peng. According to this interpretation, Hai Rui is Peng, and the Ming Emperor is Mao. Peng himself agreed with this interpretation, and stated "I want to be a Hai Rui!" in a 1962 letter to Mao

• Pianist who wins a gold medal in 1969 • Puts him at the elite world stage and makes him a national hero • Talented pianist and aware of politics • Takes Cultural Revolution opera "The Red Lantern" and arranges it for piano and voice • It becomes one of the most famous and played pieces of the cultural revolution era • Plays concerto on the back of a truck in the middle of Tiannanmen Square—call to revolution • Part of movement to get rid of "old Bourgeoisie repertoire" and replace with new Chinese repertoire

• Largest component territory of the Chinese Soviet Republic an unrecognized state established in November 1931 by Mao Zedong and Zhu De during the Chinese civil war • Defended ably by the First Red Front Army but in 1934 was finally overrun by the Kuomintang government's National Revolutionary Army in theFifth of its Encirclement Campaigns. This last campaign in 1934-35 precipitated the most famous of the grand retreats known collectively as the Long March. 1929: Mao retreats to a mountainous area known as the Guangxi soviet • Seems for a time to be the model of what the Communist might achieve • Fundamental site for a new type of revolution • Destination for many leaders • This is where Mao truly begins to develop his influence within the party • Follows a different line, naturally stresses peasantry as revolutionary force • In the wake of the white terror (underground Communist movements), party was in retreat • Chiang Kai-Shek and others are ruthless • Building on techniques carried on elsewhere, Mao focused on guerilla warfare to create a peasant army • Mao teaches a highly mobile form of warfare, which will serve the party quite well • Sense of situation and tactics that learning from facts must be the fundamental mode that the party undertakes • What could be analytically useful about this detail? Guangxi soviet becomes a victim of its own success: • Less grain being traded: creating an economic problem • Area was finding it increasingly difficult to accept Soviet's administration • Red Army is growing to more than 100,000 people • Farmers, encouraged by the party itself, are not paying their taxes to the party • Inflation is exacerbating these shortages • Guamingdong blockade • Growing loss of territory • Summer of 1934, population of those under control of Guangxi soviet

• Known as "He Shang", or "Death Song of the River" • Six-party documentary shown on China Central Television in 1988 which portrayed the decline in Chinese culture • Focus on the yellow river, to some an image of backwardness • Anti-traditional message—says "land locked China" needs to move out to the sea and modernize (i.e. going to the world of business, economic reform, and development) • Compared to Japanese skyscrapers and bullet trains • Series is a huge hit • 100 million audience • Led to a discussion as to how China should consider its past • Official press attacks it, claiming it calls for total political reform • When it is reshown, many contentious parts are censored

• On May 7, 1999, during the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia (Operation Allied Force), five US JDAM guided bombs hit the People's Republic of China embassy in the Belgrade district of New Belgrade, killing three Chinese reporters and outraging the Chinese public • Intention had been to bomb the nearby Yugoslav Federal Directorate for Supply and Procurement. PresidentBill Clinton later apologized for the bombing, stating it was accidental. • Bombing was the only one in the campaign organized and directed by his agency,[2] and that the CIA had identified the wrong coordinates for a Yugoslav military target on the same street.[3] • The Chinese government issued a statement on the day of the bombing that it was a "barbarian act".[4] • The raid caused a dramatic rise in tension between China and the United States. An official statement on Chinese television denounced what it called a "barbaric attack and a gross violation of Chinese sovereignty"

• Goals first set forth by Zhou Enlai in 1963, to strengthen the fields of agriculture, industry, national defense, science and technology in China • Causes Chinese to ask: What does it mean to be modern and Chinese at the end of the 20th century? • Is culture a legacy of the past or something that could be used for the creation of something new? • Leads to society-wide discussion of what it means to be Chinese (different from May 4th which was only between intellectuals) • Why did modern Chinese science lag behind the rest of the world? The Four Modernizations were adopted as a means of rejuvenating China's economy in 1978 following the death of Mao Zedong, and were among the defining features of Deng Xiaoping's tenure as head of the party.

• Chinese human rights activist known for his involvement in the Chinese democracy movement • He is most prominent for having authored the essay, Fifth Modernization, which was posted on the "Democracy Wall" in Beijing in 1978. Because of the manifesto, Wei was arrested and convicted of "counterrevolutionary" activities, and was detained as a political prisoner from 1979 to 1993.[1][2] • Released briefly in 1993, Wei continued with his dissident activities by speaking to visiting journalists, and was imprisoned again from 1994 to 1997 — spending a total of 18 years in different prisons. • He was deported to the United States on November 16, 1997, on medical parole.[3] Still a Chinese citizen, in 1998 Wei established the Wei Jingsheng Foundation in New York City (now based in Washington D.C.) whose stated aim is to work to improve human rights and democratization in China. • Wei discovered the role that the communist government under Mao Zedong had played in causing the famines, and it forced Wei to start questioning the nature of the system he lived under.[3] Wei would later write about this period: "I felt as if I had suddenly awakened from a long dream, but everyone around me was still plunged in darkness." • Wei's basic theme in the essay is that democracy should be also be a modernization goal for China along with the other four proposed by Deng (the four being: industry, agriculture, science and technology, and national defense).[7] • The essay immediately caused a stir because of its boldness and because it was not anonymous. It was also the only essay to address Deng Xiaoping by name, and refer to him as a dictator

• Tractor driving woman • Inspired by Soviet propaganda films • Only woman in a class of 70 students learning to drive tractors • Also becomes a skilled mechanic • Seen as a model for other women and men to think creatively • Part of a larger movement to promote women in the public realm dealing with machinery • Tractor-driving woman seen as symbol of Chinese modernity • Symbol of female emancipation 1953

• Idea originally proposed by Deng Xiaoping, then Paramount Leader of the People's Republic of China (PRC), for the reunification of China during the early 1980s • He suggested that there would be only one China, but independent Chinese regions such as Hong Kong, Macau and Taiwan could have their own capitalist economic and political systems, while the rest of China uses the socialist system • Under the suggestion, each of the three regions could continue to have its own political system, legal, economic and financial affairs, including commercial and cultural agreements with foreign countries, and would enjoy "certain rights" in foreign affairs. • Taiwan could continue to maintain its own military force, thus evading recognition of Taiwan as part of the Republic of China.[1] The 14th Dalai Lama's 2005 proposal for "high-level autonomy" for Tibet, evolved from a position of advocating Tibetan independence, has been compared to one country, two systems. He has said that his proposals should be acceptable to China because "one country, two systems" is accommodated for in the Chinese Constitution. State media refuted this claim, pointing out that "one country, two systems" was designed for the capitalist social systems of Hong Kong and Macau, which had not ever existed in Tibet

• Key GMD and Chiang Kai-Shek supporter • Important during Second Sino-Japanese War • Went into exile in Hong Kong after GMD moved to Taiwan Controlled all of China's opium trade Involved in crime, Green Gang, prostitution

• Pseudonym that was used by Chinese leader Mao Zedong's last wife and major Communist Party of China power figure • She married Mao in Yan'an in November 1938, and is sometimes referred to as Madame Mao in Western literature, serving as Communist China's first first lady • Jiang Qing was most well known for playing a major role in the Cultural Revolution (1966-76) and for forming the radical political alliance known as the "Gang of Four" (name given to a political faction composed of four Chinese Communist Party officials. They came to prominence during the Cultural Revolution (1966-76) and were subsequently charged with a series of treasonous crimes. The members consisted of Mao Zedong's last wife Jiang Qing, the leading figure of the group, and her close associates Zhang Chunqiao, Yao Wenyuan, and Wang Hongwen) • In 1966 she was appointed deputy director of the Central Cultural Revolution Group and claimed real power over Chinese politics for the first time. She became one of the masterminds of the Cultural Revolution, and along with three others, held absolute control over all of the national institutions • Used by the party as a vehicle for receiving popular support • Should be used to create new plays which celebrate revolutionary sentiment • Reasons for Mao and others support Jeng Ching in her cultural work are many • Ideological speculation: agree with political turn she is encouraging • Divert her attention from the latest "woman" in Mao's bedroom • Jiang Ching becomes the head of a series of attacks in the cultural realm on political figures o In 1965, Jiang Ching persuades a minor Maoist literary critic to critique Wu Han's play who was extremely popular at this time o Political allegory set back in the Ming Dynasty, but it is clearly about Mao Zedong o Wu Han is, in writing this, not an isolated playwright o He has the support of many other leading politicians o Denouncing Mao Zedong, actively criticizing him in very pointed ways o Mao himself had actually tried to end some of these campaigns but Wu Han and others continued to be popular o Wu Han is charged with not only distorting historical record o Complicated charges, political allegory going on o Fundamental confrontation: will Mao be able to win the day and come back to the center and deal with Wu Han and others?

• Took over power after Deng Xiaoping • Jiang leads to ideological retrenchment where media clamps down on cultural discussions and enforces censorship in newspapers/magazines • Party concerned about Jiang Zemin's legitimacy • Stirs the embers of nationalism: there are times when some of this rhetoric becomes openly xenophobic, blaming foreign countries for disorder caused by an unhealthy capitalist development Under his leadership, China experienced substantial developmental growth with reforms, saw the peaceful return of Hong Kong from the United Kingdom and Macau from Portugal, and improved its relations with the outside world while the Communist Party maintained its tight control over the government "Represents advanced social productive forces" = Economic production "Represents the progressive course of China's advanced culture" = Cultural development "Represents the fundamental interests of the majority" = Political consensus

• Beijing-based Chinese singer-songwriter, trumpeterand guitarist • Considered to be a pioneer in Chinese rock music and one of the first Chinese artists to write rock songs • Cui Jian reached the apex of his popularity during the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, when "Nothing to My Name" became an anthem to student protestors • Before the protests were violently broken up on 4-5 June, Cui frequently appeared with the students and was affirmed by Wu'er Kaixi, one of the prominent leaders of the movement, as highly influential among young Chinese of the time. • Cui Jian: Rock music is a key part of the soundtrack of the late 80's and 90's • In the 1980's, there is a resurgence of popular music as an industry • Ironic songs which are reacting to life in China at the moment • He and his band attempt, with great difficulty, to get a record deal • China in which the work unit is key • As someone who has been cut adrift from his work unit, he and his band find it difficult to have rehearsal space • They are successful in attracting capital from Taiwan and Hong Kong record companies • State record companies are much more aware, this is seen as potentially problematic • Rock, then and now, is used as a music of authenticity, youthful sentiments • Songs thinking about relations between the singer and some unnamed individual with whom he is having an intimate relationship o Allegory between the people and the party o What is this relationship? o Provocative title • Red is a color that makes us think immediately of Communism and the Communist party o Blindfold: trust in the party o Red is also a color connected with marriage, joy

• Special Economic Zones • More free-market oriented • Utilize economic management system that is conducive to doing business and that does not exist in the rest of mainland China A Special Economic Zone (SEZ) is a geographical region that has economic and other laws that are more free-market-oriented than a country's typical or national laws. "Nationwide" laws may be suspended inside a special economic zone.

• Liang is the author of China's first modern history on Chinese architecture and founder of the Architecture Department of Northeast University in 1928 and Tsinghua University in 1946 • The same reverence toward history was reflected by most of Liang's design works • One example was in around 1950, when he and his wife were both appointed to the groups designing the new national emblem. They urged that the emblem should have Chinese characteristics, not a hammer and sickle. They succeeded and in the end a representation of the façade of the Tiananmen in red and gold became the emblem that is still used today. • In 1951, they were commissioned to design the Monument to the People's Heroes, which was to be erected in the center of the Tiananmen Square. Liang's advice that it should resemble the stone memorial stele universally found throughout China swayed the design group. It is noticeable that although Liang received a totally western education in his youth, he and his works were still dominated by a conservative and tradition-oriented spirit, which was probably influenced by his father, and which was also authentic and sincere for a real Chinese scholar. • With such a deep respect for tradition and the nation's cultural heritage, Liang came up with his biggest ambition: preserving Old Beijing in its entirety

The term refers to the intellectual and cultural movement in the 1980s. This movement aroused great interest and enthusiasm among intellectuals on various cultural issues. It also reached a larger audience beyond academic institutes and college campuses, and had very wide repercussions in society. It is therefore called a fever over culture. Basically an urban phenomenon, the so-called fever emerged around 1984 when economic reforms in urban China entered a critical moment. The situation was deemed necessary for new thinking to break the spell of ossified official ideology and also for structural measures to further and deepen the reform. Intellectuals, especially young ones, were very eager to make a breakthrough in theoretical thinking, to influence public opinion and social mentality, and to help move the reform forward. Cultural issues occupied intellectual debates because intellectuals generally agreed that problems encountered in the reform were deep-rooted in China's cultural tradition. The discussion on Chinese culture and its role in modernization dominated intellectual debate from 1984 and ended in 1989 due to the sudden change of political climate. During this period, quite a few research institutes and societies for cultural studies were established, most of them semi-official or unofficial, many conferences for cultural discussion were convened, and numerous scholarly works on cultural issues were published. The movement secured some official support and sponsorship, but it was nevertheless the first independent intellectual movement since 1949. It introduced and encouraged new ideas and theories, opened people's minds, promoted freedom in thinking and research, fostered an independent spirit among intellectuals, and also furthered liberalization in academic and cultural life

• Student-led popular demonstrations in Beijing in the spring of 1989 that received broad support from city residents and exposed deep splits within China's political leadership but were forcibly suppressed by hardline leaders who ordered the military to enforce martial law in the country's capita • The crackdown initiated on June 3-4 became known as the Tiananmen Square Massacre or the June 4 Massacre as troops with assault rifles and tanks inflicted thousands of casualties on unarmed civilians trying to block the military's advance on Tiananmen Square in the heart of Beijing, which student demonstrators had occupied for seven weeks • Officially, the Chinese government condemned the protests as a "counterrevolutionary riot", and has prohibited all forms of discussion or remembrance of the events within China • The protests were triggered in April 1989 by the death of former Communist Party General Secretary, Hu Yaobang, a liberal reformer, who was deposed after losing a power struggle with hardliners over the direction of Chinese economic and political reforms. • University students who marched and gathered in Tiananmen Square to mourn Hu also voiced grievances against inflation, limited career prospects, and corruption of the party elite. • [11] They called for government accountability, freedom of the press, freedom of speech, and the restoration of workers' control over industry.[12][13] • At the height of the protests, about a million people assembled in the Square.[14] • In the aftermath of the crackdown, the government conducted widespread arrests of protesters and their supporters, cracked down on other protests around China, expelled foreign journalists and strictly controlled coverage of the events in the domestic press. • The police and internal security forces were strengthened. Officials deemed sympathetic to the protests were demoted or purged.

The premise of the "People's democratic dictatorship" is that the CPC and state represent and act on behalf of the people, but possess and may use dictatorial powers against reactionary forces.[2] Implicit in the concept of the people's democratic dictatorship is the notion that dictatorial means are a necessary counterforce to recidivist social elements, and that without such a dictatorship, the government may collapse into a dictatorship of the bourgeoisie or other degenerate social form, faulting on the socialist state charter which is its first principle Most famously used in 1949 by Mao

• A puppet state in modern northeast China and Inner Mongolia, governed under a form of constitutional monarchy • The area, collectively known as Manchuria, was designated by China's erstwhile Qing Dynasty as the "homeland" of the ruling family's ethnic group, the Manchus • In 1931, Japan seized the region following the Mukden Incident and installed a pro-Japanese government one year later with Puyi, the last Qing emperor, as the nominal regent and emperor. • Manchukuo's government was abolished in 1945 after the defeat of Imperial Japan at the end of World War II. • The territories formally claimed by the puppet state were first seized in the Soviet invasion of Manchuria in August 1945,[3] and then formally transferred to Chinese administration in the following year.[4] • Manchus formed a minority in Manchukuo, whose largest (>85%) ethnic group were Han Chinese

• Heroine from "Red Detachment of Women", a 1971 film made from a ballet • Wu Qinghua is seized by the tyrant of the south, because her family has not paid their rent • She is put in a dungeon and whipped, but she is defiant • She overpowers a henchman and escapes • She then enters the PLA and takes a rifle • Effective as both art and propaganda Ballet took the stage in 1964, extremely popular during the Cultural Revolution

• 1996 Chinese language non-fiction bestseller written and edited • It was published in China and strongly expressesChinese nationalism. • The book, which is modelled on The Japan That Can Say No, argues that many "fourth-generation" Chinese embraced Western values too strongly in the 1980s and disregarded their heritage and background. • Surprisingly, all of the authors were strong critics of Chinese government, and at least two of the authors participated in the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989. Another author was sentenced to seven years in jail by the Chinese government in the 1980s for his pro-democracy activities, though he was released after only serving three years. • Describing a disenchantment among Chinese with the US starting in the 1990s, especially after it adopted a China containment strategy, rejected China's bid for the World Trade Organization, and worked against China's bid for the 2000 Summer Olympics, the authors criticize US foreign policy (in particular, support for Taiwan) and American individualism • The book deplores unfair treatment of China by the US (as symbolized by the Yinhe Incident of 1993). It claims that China is used as a scapegoat for American problems and voices support for such governments as that of Fidel Castro's Cuba which openly declare their opposition to the US. • The book also focuses on Japan. It accuses Japan of being a client state of the US, argues that Japan should not get a seat on the United Nations Security Council, and supports a renewed call for war reparations to China from Japan for its actions in the Second Sino-Japanese War Tensions over the spiritual campaign of civilization encapsulated in the book "China that can Say No" • Effectively following a famous Japanese book which was "The Japan that Can Say No" • Japan was saying No to the United States • Chinese version is rather similar: the No is to the US • Promotion of endogenous Chinese ideas • Can stand on its own and say no to the rest of the world • Deng works to enshrine the late leader's theory as a key basis of his own legitimacy • Promotion of Deng Xiaoping thought in the late 1990's • Deng's practical attempt to focus on results • Jian Zemin also promotes his own theoretical constructs • Capitalists from this point on can join the party (seen previously as the enemy) • Party is now a large enough tent to include and recognize capitalists o Fundamental shift

• De Facto Chinese leader as head of the Politburo Standing Committee • Pushed from power by Deng Xiaoping due to Tiannanmen • He says "I have come too late" • Massacre follows Zhao was critical of Maoist policies and instrumental in implementing free-market reforms, first in Sichuan, subsequently nationwide. He emerged on the national scene due to support from Deng Xiaoping after the Cultural Revolution. He also sought measures to streamline China's bureaucracy and fightcorruption, issues that challenged the Party's legitimacy in the 1980s. Zhao Ziyang was also an advocate of the privatization of state-owned enterprises, the separation of the Party and the state, and general market economicreforms. Many of these views were shared by then-General Secretary Hu Yaobang.[2]

People from China's rural areas traveling to Beijing in order to protest about economic injustice: • In Beijing, one can get a fair and just hearing • Closing of factories went on for six years, beginning in 1996 • Promotion of a new manager • Given increased leeway, had recognized that the state should be downsized and sold to other factories • Becomes contentious around the turn of the last century o Local factory leaders and managers signed an agreement with local land managers that they would buy the land o Workers argued that assets of factory were actually things that the workers owned, not the management • $ should in total go to the workers themselves • This did not happen o Workers often carried portraits of Chairman Mao • Nostalgia of the Maoist era • Forgetting of the difficulties of the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution • This drama plays out in a variety of ways: one of the most difficult aspects for workers o Find themselves unemployed o Housing in which they had lived, owned by work units which were now collapsing, were no longer being maintained o No longer clear whether or not they could work there • Who would they pay rent to? • General apartments which had one electricity meter: those living in the buildings were expected to pay individual bills, but there was no way to do this o Functional problems which make life difficult for this large number of workers o Workers had been given an excellent deal in paying very low rent, sometimes in tens of yuen per month o Bankruptcy of many firms: they were given an opportunity under privatization plan to buy the apartments o Many of these apartments were charged at perhaps 30-50,000 yuen (very low) • Given a good deal; however, this was beyond their capacity • Effectively thrown out into the street o Privatization of housing is one thing that has happened in China: workers who were able to purchase apartments, often at a good price • Points to difficulties of work • At the same time as the northeast, employment in the South grows greatly • In the South, there is a very different picture • Large new factories hiring people at short-term contracts • Iron Ricebowl is over • Employment is provided • Shift in the economy provides new economic opportunities • Come to be two different labor regimes • Slowly dying state-enterprise system in northeast • China's more recent, export economy is southern • Driven by people who are working in areas in which they are not registered • Floating population • Created by the 1958 Household Registration system • During the reform period, beginning in the late 1980s, there comes to be a massive number of people taking to the streets and looking for work • Workers from the countryside who are floating, looking for casual work in Beijing • This movement of people has a number of very profound economic and social implications • Begins to bring large numbers a blind and frightening flow of rural people into the city • Growing influx of floating people during the 1990s, there comes to be a sense that China's cities are becoming far more dangerous (identified with the influx) • Seen as having a lower educational level • Lower level of human capital: they are perhaps creating social problems • Migrants, who were viewed as traditional and backward are a cause of increasing social dislocation in China's cities • 2004 survey of households found that particularly in Beijing, many of these young, urban male workers who were seen as a cause of dislocation (due to their hard work) • Growth of illegal, dangerous squat that grow up at the edges of China's cities

• Mid-air collision between US spy plane and Chinese interceptor fighter jet • Chinese jet crashed and pilot was killed, US spy plane landed safely with damage • US plane had to land on Hainan Island and 24 Americans were detained • US issues statement to diffuses situation • Chinese tried to portray it as an apology while Americans said it was just an expression of regret 2001 • US blamed Chinese pilots reckless flying

• This article is about internal migration within the People's Republic of China. In 2011 a total of 252.78 million migrant workers (an increase of 4.4% compared to 2010) existed in China. • Out of these, migrant workers who left their hometown and worked in other provinces accounted for 158.63 million (an increase of 3.4% compared to 2010) and migrant workers who worked within their home provinces reached 94.15 million (an increase of 5.9% compared to 2010). [1] • Estimations are that Chinese cities will face an influx of another 243 million migrants by 2025, taking the urban population up to nearly 1 billion people. In the medium and large cities, about half the population will be migrants, which is almost three times the current level • China's government influences the pattern of urbanization through the Hukou permanent residence registration system, land-sale policies, infrastructure investment and the incentives offered to local government officials. • The other factors influencing migration of people from rural provincial areas to large cities are employment, education, business opportunities and higher standard of living • China has restricted internal movement in various ways. Official efforts to limit free migration between villages and cities began as early as 1952 with a series of measures designed to prevent individuals without special permission from moving to cities to take advantage of the generally higher living standards there • The party decreased migration to cities during the 1960s and 1970s for economic and political reasons. In the early stages of the Cultural Revolution (1966-76), large numbers of urban youths were "sent down" to the countryside for political and ideological reasons. Many relocated youths were eventually permitted to return to the cities, and by the mid-1980s most had done so • Although the temporary migration into the cities was seen as beneficial, controlling it was a serious concern of the central government. An April 1985 survey showed that the "floating" or nonresident population in eight selected areas of Beijing was 662,000, or 12.5 percent of the total population. The survey also showed that people entered or left Beijing 880,000 times a day. In an effort to control this activity, neighborhood committees and work units (danwei) were required to comply with municipal regulations issued in January 1986. These regulations stipulated that communities and work units keep records on visitors, that those staying in Beijing for up to three days must be registered, and that those planning to stay longer must obtain temporary residence permits from local police stations • People who are living and working in places where they do not have household registration (225 million): great extent the workforce which has and continues to create China's economic boom • Floaters who are largely from rural areas, moved to the cities • Crisis of unemployment and bankruptcy • Many of these large state-owned enterprises: large-scale iron factories, etc. had perhaps never been economically viable but had been supported by the state for decades o This begins to end in the early 1990's o Creates a crisis of unemployment and a growth of conflict • Since the mid 1990's, there has been a marked increase in social conflict in China, in both urban and rural areas • Land to which they have deeds has been seized • The people who either owned the land or have rights to it have very little compensation • In many of these cases, local officials are benefitting personally • Behind much rural conflict • 1993: 8700 incidents such as this: people in rural or urban areas took to the streets to protest for land grabs or for wages which were being unpaid by state owned enterprises

• State-owned enterprises • In the 1990s, state lost interest in plowing large sums of money into large SOEs • Caused an unprecedented level of suffering and conflict in urban China • SOEs had dominated economic scene: 77% of China's output, as compared to just 9% from rural • Original workers had been promised jobs for life • Reforms created corporations that then got rid of unprofitable businesses and laid off 40% of SOE work force • Huge unemployment • Leads to largest protest since 1989 student movement • 830,000 people involved in over 9,000 mass incidents • Lots of unrest over wages, pensions, and benefits

• One of the student leaders in the Tian'anmen Square protests of 1989. Today she is Founder of All Girls Allowed, a humanitarian organization working to restore value to girls in China • Chai Ling organized many of the hunger strikes during demonstrations.[2] She was known as the "general commander" during the student protests and was then listed as one of the 21 most wanted students by the Chinese government after the military crackdown.[3] Chai Ling is still active in discussing China and the democracy movement as she gives speeches talking about her experience.

• Eclectic practice of meditation and different types of martial arts movements • Follows a variety of mental and sprirtual exercises • Draws from meditation, Buddhism, Hinduism, Daoism, Confucianism • Founded in 1992 by Li Hongzhi • 100 million followers by end of decade • Chinese government concerned by movement • Sees it as superstitious and dangerous • It is reactionary in its social outlook • Stresses a traditional family structure and gender roles • State carries out anti-Falun gong campaign—leading to protests • Falun Gong are peaceful, making CCP antagonism seem worse Practice of Falun Gong consists of two features: performance of the exercises, and the refinement of one's xinxing (moral character, or temperament)

o Several families from Zhejiang stopped in Beijing on a return from a trip they had taken selling clothing in Mongolia o They briefly set up shop in the southern part of the city, rented a room and found that they could do enormous business o Grows through chain migration, in which people bring relatives and friends from the same area o Set up a flourishing textile clothing manufacturing business o Perhaps half of all the winter coats sold in Beijing were manufactured by people living and working in the sweat shop factories in Zhejiang Village o Shift in land use o In the early 1980s, agricultural was still conducted close to the city center • By 1995, this had changed o Driven by growth of market economy, increasing numbers of people from rural areas who float to the city and establish their own businesses o Zhejiang village comes to be known as an area of textile factories • Families often setting up very simple workshops, which would manufacture ready-made clothing • Clothing quickly comes to dominate the clothing market of Beijing • This community does grow to be 100,000 people: largest concentration of rural floaters • Comes to be seen as a social problem • People are living in the city illegally • This area is somewhat outside the law • During the early 1990s, there is a problem with crime in this area • People pray on the migrant communities because they know that people will not go to the police • By 1994, this has become a large, well-established and wealthy community (low level of human capital, dirtiness, and danger posed by rural migrants) • City moves in and demolishes all of the residences in which migrants lived • Floating population had no redress when it was carried out • Despite the fact that this village was destroyed, in 1995, the floaters eventually float back and reestablish themselves as a rather flourishing commercial district in the south of the city • There was this period of travail and demolition, requiring them to completely rebuild • Lack of rights and access that rural people have

• Largest hydro-electric dam in the world • Representative of massive Chinese investment • One argument for the dam was that it could help control flooding that had caused Chinese misery in the past • Many historical sites (archaelogical sites) were destroyed in the Three Gorges Dam Project, 1.3 million people displaced • Dai Qing argues that projects like this prevent the Chinese state form developing in a more democratic fashion Fully working by July 4, 2012 Had been previously introduced by Sun Yat-sen and Mao Zedong

• In August 1968, Mao Zedong received a delegation from Pakistan, headed by the foreign minister. At that occasion, he was presented with a basket of mangoes. • According to some stories, Mao actually disliked mangoes, but the fruits were given an important and symbolic role in the complex political situation of the Cultural Revolution • For Mao did not eat the mangoes himself, but presented all seven of them to a corresponding number of Worker-Peasant Mao Zedong Thought Propaganda Teams that were active in the capital. These Teams had been sent to universities and factories to restore order and bring an end to the intense and bloody factional struggles between various groups of Red Guards. The media at the time reported that the gift was intended to mark the second anniversay of Mao's own big-character-poster Bombard all Headquarters. In reality, the mangoes served to indicate that Mao had become dissatisfied with the Red Guards, and henceforth would support the Teams. • The factories and universities that received the mangoes were overfilled with joy at this Great, Greatest, Happiest of Events. Many became obsessed with the question how to preserve the gift. In one case, the mango was put in a small glass box, engraved with an inscription and an image of Mao with rays of sunshine emanating from his head. Strange but compelling story of the "mango" as a revolutionary emblem: has much to do with Beijing • Nie puts up her poster at Peking University • Rather quickly, the foment of the Cultural Revolution spreads to a nearby University • Mao, in August, raises the temperature when he has affixed his poster entitled "Bombard the Headquarters" • Mao is concerned by the relief that mass struggle must be carried out • From this point onward, violent struggle and violence is unleashed on college campuses • This happens immediately in Beijing: center of politics • In the fall of 1967, the fighting among Red Guards and between different Red Guard units is particularly intense • Kuai Dafu is behind the public shaming of Wang Guangmei, wife of Liu Shaoqi • Deng Xiaoping will be rising politically but is now being chastised and humiliated politically • Corresponds with a visit by the state minister of Pakistan: gives Mao several boxes of mangos • Mao accepts the gift on the 2nd Anniversary on the "Bombard the Headquarters" poster • This is therefore linked to an important event of the Cultural Revolution • Case study in the cult of Mao o He gets a gift of mangos o Mao does not want to eat the mangos o After a day or two, he decides to make gifts of them to the factories where the workers attempting to quell the violence have been emanating o What quickly happens is that the mangos become identified as gifts which demonstrate Mao Zedong's personal concern, not only for the workers as a class but also as a whole • Mao becomes an object of veneration • Ceremony occurs at all of the factories that have received this gift from chairman Mao • This fruit is very fragile and begins to rot • Factory workers realize that they cannot eat this fruit: to consume it would violate its integrity • Come up with means to try and preserve it • Eucharistic sharing of the mango • This becomes something of a national movement • Mango becomes a center of the cult of Mao o Poetry is written that extols the mango Clearly, there are not enough mangos to go around: This has become a national campaign, everyone wants to have their own mango • Some factors begin to manufacture facsimile mangos • Mangos can be sent out to work committees around the country • Why the mango? • Why would the mango take on these associations? • Mango is something of an open signifier: Mangos were not grown in the heartland of China • In the adulation of the Mango, we have seen certain patterns of associations between blossoms that follow the sun (sunflower) and the emperor (now Chairman Mao) • In China's traditional culture, mangos were not around but peaches were • Peaches are often associated with the queen mother of the west o Folk deity that becomes part of Buddhism o Queen mother of the West has a garden that grows magical peach trees (only fruit once a millennium) • Peach is known as the longevity fruit, often a symbol of wishes for a long life • Exoticism of the mango receives all of the associations of the peach • Spontaneous outpouring by the workers in Beijing, fanned by the party, spreads throughout the country to become a major symbols of the Cultural Revolution at this point The Party and factories are realizing that this enthusiasm for the mango is spreading • They begin to produce products that reflect this political campaign • Mango "enamel cup": one of a variety of goods that is produced to celebrate this campaign • Facsimile wax mangos distributed to work units around the country • Goods are awarded to work units that are seen as meeting important political and commercial goals • Encourages an association between the land of China and the leader himself • Marking an important political shift in the Cultural Revolution that takes place o Working class is the leadership class o Mao and others begin to shift down the violent chaos of the Cultural Revolution at this point • The mango also becomes something which is used on plates, wedding gifts • Cloth is printed with mangos on it • Becomes a national campaign • Some instances in which the cult of the mango become rather violent as well Wax mangos sent throughout the country, put on public display • Original mangos are sent around the country, withered at this point • Dr. Han, local dentist, had sad "That mango is not that impressive, it looks like a sweet potato" o He was denounced o Paraded through the streets on the back on a truck o He was executed: shot through the back of the head • Fervor of the cult of Mao • Mango is the center of the cult for about a year • Attempt on the part of the party to pull back on revolutionary fervor • Testament to the power and spontaneity on the part of the working class

The Three Represents is a socio-political ideology credited to General Secretary Jiang Zemin which became a guiding ideology of the Communist Party of China at its Sixteenth Party Congress in 2002. Jiang Zemin first introduced his theory on February 25, 2000 while on an inspection tour in Maoming, Guangdong province. He was attempting a comprehensive summary of the party's historical experience and how to adapt to new situations and tasks when he stated: In summarizing the 70 year history of our party, we draw an important conclusion which is: our party has always won the support of the people because in revolution, construction and reform over the various historical periods, the Party has always represented the developmental needs of China's advanced production capacity, represented the progressive direction of China's advanced culture, and represented the fundamental interests of the broad majority; in establishing the development of the correct lines, principles and policies, the Party has untiringly struggled to realize the Nation and People's fundamental interests. Humanity has come again into a new century and a new millennium. In these new historical conditions, how our Party can best dispatch these "three represents" is an important issue that all comrades, especially the Party's senior cadres, need to consider deeply.[1] The official statement of the ideology stipulates that the Communist Party of China should be representative to advanced social productive forces, advanced culture, and the interests of the overwhelming majority. Economic production, cultural development, political consensus