question

Metacognition

answer

-cognition about cognition -learning about learning -declarative, procedural, knowledge

question

Three skills regulated thinking and learning

answer

-planning -monitoring -evaluating

question

Learning Strategies

answer

-procedural knowledge -metacognition knowledge

question

How do learning strategies help students?

answer

-become cognitively engaged -invest effort -think and process deeply -monitor own learning

question

Principles for helping students develop learning strategies

answer

-expose them to several learning strategies -teach them when, where, and why to use learning strategies -develop motivation by showing them how learning can be improved -provide direct instruction

question

Students will apply strategies if...

answer

-the task requires good strategies -they value doing well -think their efforts will be worthwhile -believe they can succeed using the strategies

question

Problem solving

answer

-Formulating new answers -going beyond the simple application of previously learned rules -general or domain specific -well-structured or ill-structured

question

General problem solving strategy

answer

-identify the problem -define the goals -explore possible strategies -anticipate outcomes of act -look back and learn

question

Other problem solving strategies

answer

-algorithm -heuristic -mean-ends analysis -working backward -analogical thinking -verbalization

question

Algorithm

answer

a step-by-step prescription for achieving a goal

question

Heuristic

answer

a general strategy that might lead to the right answer

question

Mean-ends analysis

answer

the problem is divided into a number of intermediate goals and then a means of solving each intermediate goal is figured out

question

Working backward strategy

answer

Begin at the goal and then move back to solve the initial problem

question

Analogical thinking

answer

limits your search for solutions that have something in common with the one you currently face

question

Verbalization

answer

putting your problem solving plan into words and giving reasons for selecting it

question

Factors that interfere with problem solving

answer

-fixation -operating in a common response set -relying on prototypes -memories and beliefs

question

Expert problem solvers...

answer

-have a rich source of declarative knowledge -organize knowledge around general principles and patterns -work faster -remember relevant information -monitor progress

question

Creativity

answer

involves independently restructuring problems to see things in a new, imaginative way

question

Indicators of creativity

answer

-concentration -adaptability -high energy -humor -independence -playfulness -nonconformity

question

Sources of creativity

answer

-domain relevant skills -creativity relevant process -intrinsic task motivation

question

Fostering creativity in the classroom

answer

-accept unusual, imaginative answers -model divergent thinking -use brainstorming -tolerate dissent -provide multicultural experiences

question

Critical thinking includes...

answer

-defining and clarifying a problem -making judgements about information related to the problem -drawing conclusions

question

Argumentation

answer

-supporting your position with evidence and understanding -takes both time and instruction to learn

question

Transfer

answer

-occurs when a rule, fact, or skill learned in one situation is applied to another situation

question

Automatic transfer

answer

spontaneous application of well-learned knowledge and skill

question

Mindful, intentional transfer

answer

involved reflection and conscious application of abstract knowledge to new situations

question

How to teach transfer learning strategies...

answer

-teach strategies directly -provide feedback -expand the application to new situations

question

Basic assumptions of the Learning Science

answer

-experts have deep, conceptual knowledge -learning comes from the learner -schools must create effective learning environments -prior beliefs and knowledge are key -reflection is necessary to develop deep conceptual knowledge

question

Embodied cognition

answer

cognitive processes develop from real-time, goal directed interactions

question

Constructivism

answer

view that emphasizes active role of learner in building understanding, making sense of information

question

Two central ideas of constructivism

answer

1. learners are active in constructing their own knowledge 2. social interactions are important in knowledge construction `

question

Psychological constructivism

answer

use information/resources to build/improve mental models, problem-solving strategies

question

Social constructivism

answer

increase ability to participate with others in activities that are meaningful in the culture

question

First wave constructivism (Piaget)

answer

focus on individual/psychological sources of knowing, individuals make their own learning

question

Radical constructivism

answer

knowledge assumed to be individuals constriction, cannot be judged right or wrong

question

Second wave constructivism (Vygotsky)

answer

putting learning in a social and cultural contexts, social interaction

question

How is knowledge constructed?

answer

-directed by realities/truths of external world (Information processing) -directed by internal process (Piaget) -directed by both internal and external forces (Vygotsky)

question

5 conditions recommended by many constructivist approaches

answer

-embed learning in complex, realistic, relevant environments -provide for social negotiation, shared responsibility -support multiple perspectives, use multiple representations -nurture self-awareness and an understanding that knowledge is constructed -encourage ownership in learning

question

Complex learning and authentic tasks

answer

-students should encounter complex learning environments that mimic real life

question

Social negotiation

answer

-rely on collaboration with others -establish/defend own positions -talking and listening to others -finding a common ground

question

Multiple representations

answer

consider problems using various analogies, examples

question

Spiral curriculum

answer

Jermone Bruner -introduces fundamental structure of all subjects -revisit subjects in more complex ways

question

Inquiry

answer

teacher presents a puzzling situation, students gather to collect data, testing their conclusions

question

4 categories of inquiry activities

answer

-procedural: hands on -epistemic: draw conclusions based on evidence -conceptual: connect to prior knowledge -social: discuss, argue, debate, present

question

Inquiry process

answer

-teacher presents problems -students formulate hypothesis -collect data -draw conclusions -reflect

question

Problem-based learning

answer

-develop flexible knowledge -students confront problem -launches inquiry -collaborate to solve

question

Problem-based learning is overrated

answer

unguided discover/inquiry are ineffective

question

Problem based learning is a powerful teaching approach

answer

-accurate solutions -practical application -better at explaining concepts -develop self-regulation skills

question

Cognitive apprenticeships

answer

less experienced learner acquires knowledge/skills under guidance of an expert

question

Reciprocal teaching

answer

Goal: help students think about what they have read

question

4 strategies of reciprocal teaching

answer

-summarize -ask questions about main points -clarify -predict -teacher models this, then gradually the students do it

question

Three guidelines for reciprocal teaching

answer

-shift from teacher to student -match demands and abilities of students -diagnose thinking of students

question

Collaboration

answer

philosophy on how to relate to other, how to learn and work

question

Cooperation

answer

way of working with others to attain a shared goal

question

Group work

answer

simply students working together, may not be cooperating

question

Disadvantages of group work:

answer

-students may value process over learning -reinforce misunderstandings/group conformity -socializing may take precedent -may depend on "expert" in group

question

5 elements that define cooperative groups

answer

-positive interdependence -promote interaction -individual accountability -collaborative and social skills -group processing

question

How to create cooperative groups

answer

-4-6 to review -2-4 for participation -balance boys and girls -balance shy and outgoing -monitor groups -rotate roles

question

Designs for cooperation

answer

-reciprocal questioning -jigsaw -constructive controversies

question

4 controversies of constructivist practice

answer

-conceptual -pedagogical -cultural -political

question

Conceptual

answer

make sense of cognitive vs. social conceptions

question

Pedagogical

answer

honor students attempts to think for selves and remain faithful to accepted disciplinary ideas

question

Cultural

answer

become conscious of culture in classroom, question assumptions about kinds of activities to use

question

Political

answer

gain support of administrators and parents for using radical approaches to teaching

question

Service learning

answer

combines academic learning with personal and social development for secondary and college students

question

Characteristics of service learning

answer

-organized and meet actual community needs -integrated into curriculum -reflection -application -enhance academic and caring for others

question

Controversy of labels

answer

-false assumptions -self-fulfilling prophecy -limit course selections -misused as explanations for behaviors

question

Benefits of labels

answer

-provide access to assistance programs -protect the child in some cases

question

Disability

answer

inability to do something specific

question

Handicap

answer

disadvantage in certain situations

question

Principle of practice

answer

avoid turning handicap into a disability

question

Intelligence

answer

ability to acquire and use knowledge for solving problems of the world

question

Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences

answer

eight separate abilities believes intelligence is biological based

question

Criticism of multiple intelligences

answer

-abilities are correlated, not separate -some are personality traits -things that over time are reinforced

question

Sternberg's theory of successful intelligence

answer

-thinking processes -coping with new experiences -adapting to context

question

Analytic intelligence

answer

processing familiar problems

question

Creative intelligence

answer

use insight (deal with novel situations) and automaticity (process without effort)

question

Practical intelligence

answer

adapting to environment success in practical matters

question

Stanford-Binets

answer

Intelligence Quotient -group scores are less accurate -ignore small differences -predictor of school abilities, not intelligence -IQ has been rising over decades

question

Guidelines to interpreting IQ scores

answer

-Note whether it's from individual or group -View scores as estimates -View scores as reflection of past learning -Flynn effect: IQ scores rise of time

question

Learning and thinking styles

answer

-Cognitive-centered -Personality-centered -Activity-centered

question

Learning preferences

answer

characteristic approaches to learning 1`

question

IDEA

answer

-Individual differences law -Requires states to provide free, appropriate public education for all students with disabilities

question

IEP

answer

-Individualized Education Program -legal document, specifies services being provided for student

question

504 Protections

answer

Prevents discrimination against people with disabilities in any program funded with federal money

question

Learning Challenges

answer

neuroscience and learning challenges

question

Learning Disability

answer

problem with acquisition and use of language, difficulty in reading, writing, reasoning, or math

question

Hyperactivity and Attention Disorders

answer

persuasive pattern of inattention, impulsivity, and/or hyperactivity

question

Communication Disorders

answer

Inability to produce sounds for speaking

question

Emotional or Behavioral Difficulties

answer

Inappropriate, unhappiness, depression, fears, anxiety, relationship difficulties that interfere with growth/development

question

Intellectual Disabilities

answer

Current term for mental retardation, cognitive impairment

question

Health and Sensory Impairments

answer

Cerebral palsy, spasticity, epilepsy General health concerns that can interfere with learning v]

question

Vision Impairments, Students who are deaf

answer

Low vision, legally blind, deaf

question

Autism Spectrum Disorders

answer

Pervasive developmental disorder Developmental disability that significantly affects verbal and nonverbal communication

question

Response to Intervention (RTI)

answer

Ensure appropriate research-based instruction and support as soon as possible, before they fall behind

question

Gifted and Talented

answer

Very bright, creative, and talented students

question

Culture

answer

Knowledge, values, attitudes, traditions that guide the behavior of a group of people and allow them to solve problems of living in their environment

question

Ethnicity

answer

Cultural heritage shared by a group of people

question

Race

answer

socially constructed category of people who share biologically transmitted traits

question

Minority Groups

answer

group of people who are socially disadvantaged

question

Prejudice

answer

Unfair prejudgement about groups of people

question

Racial prejudice

answer

Racism

question

Stereotype

answer

What we believe, know, feel about a group

question

Stereotype threat

answer

Fear that your performance may confirm a stereotype others hold about you

question

Effects of stereotype threat

answer

Poor performance Disidentification

question

Sex

answer

Biological differences

question

Gender

answer

Traits, behaviors deemed proper for males/females

question

Gender identity

answer

Sense of self as male/female and beliefs about gender roles

question

Motivation

answer

Internal state, arouses, directs, maintains behavior

question

Intrinsic motivation

answer

activities are their own reward

question

Extrinsic motivation

answer

created by external factors

question

Amotivation

answer

complete lack of intent to act

question

Locus of causality

answer

location of the cause of a behavior internal=intrinsic external=extrinsic

question

Four types or levels of extrinsic motivation

answer

-External regulation -Introjected regulation -Identification -Integrated rejection

question

External regulation

answer

highly extrinsic

question

Introjected regulation

answer

participate to avoid guilt or negative self-perceptions

question

Identification

answer

Participate with lack of interest; serve a larger goal that is personally motivation

question

Integrated regulation

answer

Participate with interest and to receive extrinsic reward

question

Five general approaches to motivation

answer

-Behavioral -Humanistic -Cognitive -Social Cognitive -Sociocultural

question

Behavioral

answer

Skinner Extrinsic, emphasizes reinforcers, rewards, incentives, punishers

question

Humanistic

answer

Maslow Intrinsic, emphasizes self-esteem, choice, self determination

question

Cognitive

answer

Intrinsic, emphasize beliefs, attributions for success/failures

question

Social cognitive

answer

Bandura Intrinsic/extrinsic, expectation of success toward a valued goal

question

Sociocultural

answer

Intrinsic, emphasize participation, identities, interpersonal relations in learning communities

question

Maslows hierarchy of needs

answer

Humans have seven levels of needs Survival, safety, belonging, self-esteem, cognitive, aesthetic, self-actualization

question

Criticism of hierarchy

answer

Not all needs met in order

question

Motivation is based on three needs

answer

Achievement, competence or mastery Power, autonomy/control to determine own actions Affiliation, belonging,

question

Cognitive Evaluation Theory

answer

-Events affect motivation according to one's perception of the events -Students perceive events as either controlling behavior or providing information -Controlling events diminish intrinsic motivation and may increase motivation to perform to please others -Events that provide information increase students' feelings of competence and increase intrinsic motivation

question

Guidelines for support, self-determination, and autonomy

answer

-Give students choices -Help students set/achieve self-selected goals -Hold students accountable for consequences of choices -Provide rationale for limits, rules, constraints -Acknowledge negative emotions in reaction to teacher control -Give non-controlling, positive feedback to students

question

Meeting students needs in the classroom

answer

-Demonstrate caring for each student -Foster students peer relationships -Greater need for positive relationships for at-risk students

question

How goal setting improves performance

answer

-Direct attention to the task -Energize efforts to complete the task, reach the goal -Increase persistence, less likely to give up -Develop new knowledge/strategies to ensure success

question

Types of goals that enhance motivation

answer

-Specific, elaborated goals with subgoals -Moderate difficulty, not too easy or too hard -Proximal, reachable in the near future

question

Four achievement goal orientations in school

answer

-Mastery -Performance -Work-avoidance -Social

question

Mastery goal

answer

learn, improve, master a task or skill

question

Performance

answer

demonstrate ability to others, look good, win

question

Work-avoidance

answer

finish fast, avoid work, be able to chill

question

Social

answer

connections to others, being part of a group

question

Other factors that make goal setting effective

answer

-Feedback -Goal framing when explaining assignments -Goal acceptance by students

question

How to help students set a goal

answer

-Clear, specific, reasonable goals -Moderately challenging -Provide encouragement -Focus on learning, not performance

question

Entity view of ability

answer

-stable/fixed view -cannot be changed -influences students to set performance avoidance goals -influences teachers to for judgements quickly

question

Incremental view of ability

answer

-set of skills that can be changed -influences students to believe they can improve, and use good strategies -influences teachers to set mastery goals

question

Attribution

answer

trying to understand our successes/failures

question

Dimensions of attributions for one's success/failures

answer

-Locus -Stability -Controllability

question

Locus

answer

Location of cause internal or external

question

Stability

answer

Constant or changing across situations

question

Controllability

answer

Can a person change the cause

question

Attributions of failure to internal, controllable factors

answer

-Students believe they can improve with effort -Focus on strategies for succeeding next time

question

Attributions of failure to stable, uncontrollable factors

answer

-Students believe they cannot improve -Focus on their inadequacy; lack motivation -Unlikely to seek help; conceal difficulties with excuses

question

Teacher actions with student attributions

answer

-Encourage students to attribute performance to personal effort -Give ability-focused feedback

question

Learned helplessness

answer

believing events/outcomes are uncontrollable, failure inevitable

question

Learned helplessness leads to three deficits

answer

-Motivational -Cognitive -Affective

question

Mastery orientated

answer

Incremental view of ability; focus on learning goals; effort and good strategies being success

question

Failure avoiding

answer

Entity view of ability; fear failure; focus on performance goals

question

Failure accepting

answer

entity view of ability; expect to fail; exhibit learned helplessness

question

Strategies to reduce failure acceptance

answer

-Minimize stress -Promote active coping strategies -Set multiple small goals to ensure success

question

How to encourage self-worth

answer

-Emphasize nature of ability -teach the difference between learning goals and performance goals -use failure as diagnostic to guide improvement

question

Students interest

answer

-Personal interests -Situational interests

question

How to hold students interest

answer

-Connect academic content to personal interests -Trigger and maintain situational interest

question

Curiosity

answer

Tendency to be interested in wide range of areas, can lead to interests

question

Guidelines for building on interests and curiosity

answer

-Relate content to student experiences -Use humor and personal experiences -Add interest by adding original source material

question

Learning

answer

cold cognition of reasoning/problem solving and hot cognition influenced by mood and emotion

question

Teaching to increase positive achievement emotions

answer

-Match challenge to students skill level -Give choices to increase autonomy -Show enthusiasm for subject -Use mastery goal orientation with focus on learning

question

Arousal

answer

Physical and psychological reactions causing one to be alert, attentive, wide awake

question

Helping students cope with anxiety in the classroom

answer

-Self-regulation strategies -Realistic goal setting -Effective methods of learning and studying -Limited environmental triggers

question

Dealing with anxiety

answer

-Use competition carefully -Avoid large-group performance situations -Avoid uncertainty -Avoid time pressures -Teach test taking skills

question

Five elements for building a concept of motivation to learn

answer

-intrinsic goal setting -Involvement in leaning goal -Motivation to achieve mastery

question

TARGET model

answer

-Task -Autonomy -Recognition -Grouping -Evaluation -Time

question

Task

answer

Authentic and valued by students

question

Autonomy

answer

Provide appropriate choices, level of control

question

Recognition

answer

of accomplishment

question

Grouping

answer

for cooperative tasks

question

Evaluation

answer

emphasizes leaning more than grades

question

Time

answer

flexibility to allow for engaged and persistent learning for students

question

Standardized test

answer

Published tests

question

Classroom assessments

answer

created and selected by teachers

question

Measurement

answer

quantifies how much, how often, how well test scores, ranks, ratings

question

Assessment

answer

broader term than testing and measurement gathering data about student performance

question

Formative assessment

answer

Ungraded pretests to form and shape instruction

question

Summative assessment

answer

final exam to evaluate final achievement

question

Norm-referenced

answer

comparison of the individuals scores to the scores of the norm group on the same test

question

Norm

answer

typical or average score on the test

question

Norm group

answer

sample of students serving as a comparison group for a test

question

Uses of norm-referenced test interpretations

answer

compare performances of students to determine ranking, select top students

question

Limitations of norm-referenced test interpretations

answer

not a picture of one's ability

question

Criterion-referenced

answer

based on performance relative to specified criteria

question

Criteria

answer

a set of performance standards

question

Uses of criterion-referenced test interpretations

answer

measure basic skill, level of ability

question

Limitations of criterion-referenced test interpretations

answer

Not appropriate for all teaching situations, sometimes comparisons are helpful

question

Reliability

answer

Does the test render consistent test scores?

question

Test-retest reliability

answer

Individual taking test on different occasions makes about the same score each time

question

Alternate-form reliability

answer

Group taking two equivalent versions of a test achieve comparable scores on both tests

question

Internal consistency

answer

precision of a test

question

Split-half reliability

answer

test takers do well on half the test questions but not the other half

question

Sources of error in every testing situation

answer

Student: mood, skill, motivation, cheating Test: unclear directions, reading level required, ambiguous items, time limits

question

Standard error of measurement

answer

estimate of variation in scores if test were repeated

question

Confidence interval

answer

range of score within which individuals score falls

question

True score

answer

What one would get in error free situation

question

Validity

answer

Does test measure what it intends to measure?

question

Content related evidence

answer

Test items cover key topics of the unit/course

question

Criterion related evidence

answer

Correlation between test scores and other criterion based measure

question

Construct related evidence

answer

gathered over many years applies to standardized tests

question

Assessment bias

answer

Qualities of test that offend, penalize, or disadvantage a group of students

question

Procedural unfairness

answer

Unequal opportunities for some groups to demonstrate what they know on the test

question

Judging tests from textbooks

answer

-Do test questions match your objectives? -Do questions match what you teach? -Are language and terminology appropriate for your students?

question

Objective testing

answer

Scoring requires no interpretation

question

Writing multiple choice items

answer

-Make question clear -State in positive terms -Fit answer to correct grammatical term -Avoid always, all, only, never -Avoid all of the above, none of the above

question

Constructing essay tests

answer

-Create clear questions requiring precise tasks -Indicate elements to be covered in the answer -Suggest time limits, length of response

question

Evaluating essays

answer

-Establish scoring criteria -Assign point values to components of answer -Grade all responses to one question before moving on to next question

question

Value of traditional tests

answer

-Assess content knowledge -Inform teachers about additional learning -Encourage learning and retention by testing frequently

question

Criticisms of traditions tests

answer

-Fail to test real world situations -Assess understanding out of context

question

Authentic Classroom assessments

answer

Tests that ask students to apply skills in real-world context

question

Portfolios

answer

Systematic collection of student work in an area

question

Exhibitions

answer

Performance/demonstration of students learning, requires public demonstration

question

Evaluating portfolios and performances

answer

Assess using checklists, rating scales, rubrics

question

Guidelines for using rubrics

answer

-Show examples of various quality levels -List criteria and list scores -Use self/peer assessment; let students revise work -use same rubric across the board

question

Examples of informal assignments

answer

Journals Observations Self-assessments

question

Benefits of involving students in assessments

answer

Keep track of their own progress Assess their own work

question

Effects of grading on students

answer

-Need to balance high standards and chance to succeed -Need to challenge students and help them succeed -Retention a grade

question

Ways to communicate with families

answer

-Report cards -Phone calls -Open house -Students led conferences

question

Mean score

answer

arithmetical average of a group of scores

question

Median score

answer

the middle score in a group of scores

question

Mode score

answer

most frequently occurring score

question

Standard deviation

answer

How widely the scores vary from the mean

question

Range

answer

Distance between the highest and lowest scores

question

Normal distribution

answer

bell-shaped curve; scores even distributed around the mean

question

Percentile rank

answer

Percent of test takers at or below an individuals score

question

Grade-equivalent

answer

Average scores of students in the norm group at a given grade level

question

A scores

answer

deviation above or below the mean

question

Z score

answer

the number of standard deviations a score falls above or below the average

question

T score

answer

standard score with mean of 50 and standard deviation of 10

question

Stanine score

answer

Uses whole numbers form 1 to 9

question

Explaining and using test results

answer

Use nontechnical terms to explain score, use percentile scores, avoid using grade equivalent

question

Value-added measure

answer

Assess actual growth Begin with baseline scores

question

PARCC test

answer

-Partnerships for Assessment of Readiness for College and Careers -Intended to replace state achievement tests -Common set of K-12 tests in English and math -Developing online testing

question

Good instruction and good grading depend on a teacher who:

answer

-Recognizes, responds to student differences -Specifies clear learning outcomes -Uses formative assessments to monitor progress -Adapts instruction to help all students progress -Informs students of criteria for success on graded work -Provides varied forms of assessment

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