Middle Childhood and Adolescence Exam 1 – Flashcards
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Physical Development
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body size, body systems, motor capacities, nervous systems
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Cognition Development
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intellectual abilities
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Emotional and Social Development
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emotional communication, self-understanding, interpersonal skills, moral reasoning
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Early Childhood
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2-6 years
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Middle Childhood
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6-11
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Adolescence
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11-18
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Continuous
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you are the same person just growing up, gradual
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Discontinuous
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you grow up in stages, like a caterpillar ->cocoon -> butterfly
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Nature
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inborn, biological, based on genetic inheritance
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Nurture
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physical and social world, influences biological and psychological development
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Stability
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individual characteristic will remain in your later life
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Plasticity
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change is possible, based on experience
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Medieval Era
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children under age 8 need to be treated different than adults
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Reformation
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16th century, Puritan "child depravity" views
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Enlightenment
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John Locke, children are born with a blank slate, continuous development/nurture
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18th Century
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Jean-Jacques Rousseau, "noble savages" naturally good, nature, discontinuous, society ruins them
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Evolutionary Theory
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natural selection and survival of the fittest
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Normative Approach
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Hall and Gesell: age related averages based on measurements of large numbers of children
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Mental Testing Movement
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Binet and Simon: early developers of intelligence tests
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theory
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describes, explains, and predicts behaviors
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Id
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largest portion of the mind, unconscious, present at birth, source of biological needs and desires
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Ego
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conscious, rational, emerges in infancy, redirects impulses acceptably
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Superego
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conscience, ages 3-6, interactions with caretakers
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Conscious
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thoughts and perceptions
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Preconscious
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memories and knowledge
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Unconscious
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fears, violent feelings
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Classical Conditioning
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stimulus -> response
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Operant Conditioning
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reinforcers and punishments
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Social-Cognitive Approach
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learn from watching others
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Modeling or Observational Learning
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watching others
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Cognition
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stressed today; social cognitive approach
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Limitations of Behaviorism and Social Learning Theory
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-too narrow a view of important environmental influences -underestimates children's contributions -children are an active role in their own learning -applied behavior analysis
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Sensorimotor
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birth-2 years, infants "think" by acting on the word, invent ways of solving sensorimotor problems
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Preoperational
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2-7, uses symbols and language
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Concrete Operational
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7-11, logical reasoning, thinking is not abstract
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Formal Operational
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11 years -> on, abstract thinking, hypothesis, inferences
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Information Processing
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-human mind as a symbol manipulating system -flowcharts to map problem-solving steps -information=input that is actively coded, output= behavior
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Ethology
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concerned with adaptive or survival value of behavior and its evolutionary history , roots traced to Darwin (imprinting, critical period, sensitive period)
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Evolutionary Developmental Psychology
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-seeks to understand adaptive value of human competencies -studies cognitive, emotional, and social competencies as they change with age -expanded upon Ethology
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Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory
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-transmission of culture to a new generation (beliefs, customs, skills) -social interaction is vital for cognitive development (cooperative dialogues with more knowledgeable members of society)
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Microsystem
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immediate environment
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Mesosystem
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connections between microsystems, such as home, school, neighborhood
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Exosystem
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social settings that do not directly include the child but affect their experiences in immediate settings (work place of a parent affects their children)
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Macrosystem
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cultural values, customs, resources
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Chronosystem
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temporal dimension of life changes that an be imposed on the child (millennials grew up with different things than the baby boomers)
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Dynamic Systems Perspective
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-an integrated system that guides mastery of new skills -system is constantly in motion, reorganizing into more effective means
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Hypothesis
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prediction drawn directly from a theory
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Research Methods
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activities of participants
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Research Designs
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overall plans for research studies
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Scientific Method
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conceptualize problem -> collect data -> draw conclusions -> revise conclusion and theory
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Naturalistic Observation
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seen in the field, cannot control conditions
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Structured Observation
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lab situation set up to evoke behavior of interest, may not be typical everyday behaviors
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Clinical Interview
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-flexible, conversational style -participant's point of view -children may not be good at this
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Structured Interview
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-ask everyone the same questions in the same way -may use questionnaires -can't go as in depth
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Case Study
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-bring together wide range of information, including interviews, observations, test scores -unique types of individuals -may be influenced by researcher biases, findings ma not generalize
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Ethnography
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-participant observation of a culture or distinct social group -mix of observations, self-reports, interpretation by investigator -results can be biased by researcher -findings limited to individuals and settings studied
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Correlational Design
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-researchers gather info and make no effort to alter participants' experienced -limited cause and effect
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Correlational Coefficients
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-magnitude: strength indicated by a number between 0-1 -positive: one variable goes up, so does the other -negative: one goes up, the other goes down
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Experimental Design
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-permits inferences about cause-and-effect relationships -even-handed procedure to assign people to two or more treatment conditions
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Independent Variable
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-experimenter controls -expected to cause change
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Dependent Variable
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-measures but does not manipulate -expected to be influenced by the independent variable
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Field Experiment
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use rare opportunities for random assignments in natural settings (two different classrooms)
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Natural Experiment
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compare differences in treatment that already exist -groups chosen to match characteristics as much as possible -bilingualism
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Longitudinal Experiment
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same participants at different ages
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Cross-Sectional Experiment
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participants at differing ages studied at the same time
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Sequential Experiment
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similar to cross-sectional or longitudinal studies, conducted at varying times (conduct longitudinal studies with different ages)
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Micro-genetic Experiment
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take a lot of measurements in a short period of time (best when a person is going through a lot of changes)
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Body Growth
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-slow regular pace -girls slightly shorter and lighter than boys until age 9, then trend switches
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Secular Trend in Physical Growth
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-appear in early life -increase over childhood and early adolescence -declines as mature body size is reached -height stabilized but weigh gain continues
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Skeletal Growth in Middle Childhood
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-bones lengthen and broaden -ligaments not firmly attached to bones makes fo good flexibility -"growing pains" -age 12 baby teeth -> adult teeth -get under or over bite
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Gray Matter
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cell bodies where connections are, peaks in middle childhood and declines because of synaptic pruning
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White Matter
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connect different parts of gray matter to each other
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Synaptic Pruning
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synapse elimination that occurs between early childhood and onset of puberty, pruning starts near the time of birth and is completed by the times of sexual maturation in humans
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Neurotransmitters
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chemical messengers enable communication
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Causes of Poor Nutrition
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-more focus on new friends and activities, less on eating -children stop eating with family -more soda and fast food -malnutrition because of poverty
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Overweight and Obesity
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-32% overweight, 17% obese -urbanization and dietary shifts
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Causes of Obesity
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-hereditary (based on experience with parents not genetics) -socioeconomic status -family eating patterns -seeing food vs. actually being hungry -lack of physical activity -television viewing
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Family Stressors
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-elevated stress hormones signal brain to boost caloric intake -chronic stress triggers insulin resistance -insufficient sleep
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Consequences of Obesity
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-social isolation -unhappiness and over-eating contribute to one another -overweight girls more likely to reach puberty earlier -life chances are reduced
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Treating Obesity
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-family-based interventions -rewards for giving up inactivity -school interventions -healthier lunches
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Problem with Sugar
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-drives fat storage -absorbed by body more quickly -calorie for calorie, sugar makes you more resistant to insulin
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How to stop eating so much sugar
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-get rid of sugared liquid -only eat sugars (carbs) with their natural fiber -wait 20 minutes before second portions -screen time minute for minute with physical activity
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Myopia
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-nearsightedness -most common vision problem in middle childhood -increases with SES, affected by screen time -less natural light, more problems with sight
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Otitis Media
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-middle ear infections -common in early childhood
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Bedwetting
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-nocturnal enuresis -occurs in 1 in 10 children -affects more boys than girls -usually biological -can be bettered with medication or using urine alarm
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Illnesses
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-rate of illnesses rise during first 2 years of school because of exposure to sick children and immune system is still developing
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Asthma
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Less asthma for kids with pets and less clean homes
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Severe Illnesses
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Affect 2% of children
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Interventions for Families with Chronically Ill Children
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-health education -home visits -disease-specific summer camps
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Unintentional Injuries in Middle Childhood
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-boys affected more than girls -motor vehicles most common -bicycle accidents
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Health Education for School-Age Children
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-gap remains between knowledge and behavior -adults should work to reduce environmental health risks -parents and teachers should model good behaviors
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Barriers to Health Education
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-health is not important to children -hard to see connection between now and future -advertising makes it hard
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Gains in Basic Gross Motor Capacities
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-flexibility -balance -agility -force
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Fine Motor Skills
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-writing -drawing
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Changes in Gross Motor Skills
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-running faster -skipping -vertical jump -throwing and catching -kicking
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Changes in Fine Motor Skills
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-uppercase and lowercase letters -increased legibility -organization, detail, depth in drawings -two dimensional shapes
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Individual Differences in Motor Skills
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-body build -family income and parental encouragement -sex differences
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Games with Rules
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-emotional and social development -informal play is declining in industrialized countries as a result of concern about neighborhood safety and TV
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Adult-Organized Youth Sports
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-half of US children participated in organized sports outside school -associated with increases in self-esteem and social skills
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Providing Developmentally Appropriate Organized Sports
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-build on interests -age-appropriate skills -limit frequencies and length of practices -personal and team improvement
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Rough and Tumble Play
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-friendly chasing and play fighting -common in mammals -common among boys
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Piaget's Theory
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-concrete operational stage -able to conduct operations with objects (add with physical objects, not mentally)
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Conservation
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qualities of an object do not change
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Decentration
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ability to focus on several parts of the problem at one time
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Reversibility
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thinking through a series of steps and then mentally reversing direction
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Classification
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-children able to classify objects in a hierarchical manner -7 to 10 years -class inclusion
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Seriation
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-able to put things in order by quantitative dimension -6 to 7 years
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Transitive Inference
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doing the thinking mentally
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Limitations of Concrete Operational Thought
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-works poorly with abstract ideas -most affective when dealing with concrete info
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Continuum of Acquisition
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-children master it step by step -gradual mastery of logical concepts indicates limitations of concrete operational thinking
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Follow-Up Research on Concrete Operational Thought
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-experience of attending school promotes mastery of Piagetian tasks -certain informal, non-schooling experiences can also foster operational thought
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Neo-Piagetian Theories
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-operational thinking represents expansion of information-processing capacity -central conceptual structures enable children to think effectively in a wide range of situations
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Executive Function
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-improves, supporting gains in planning strategic thinking, and self-monitoring (marshmallow experiment) -influenced by combination of heredity and environmental factors
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Working-Memory Capacity
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-benefits from increased efficiency of thinking -often deficient in children with persistent learning difficulties in reading and math -can be increased through direct training
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Selective Attention
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increased ability to attend only to relevant aspects of task
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Flexible Attention
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ability to flexibly adapt attention to situational requirements
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Planful Attention
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increased ability to evaluate a sequence of steps in advance
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Rehearsal
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repetition
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Organization
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grouping related items together
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Elaboration
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creating relationships between pieces of information from different categories
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Theory of Mind
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-children's theory of what the mind is -ability to attribute mental states (beliefs, intents, desires to oneself) -understanding that others have beliefs, desires, intentions, and perspectives different than their own
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Process of Cognitive Self-Regulation
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-involves continuously monitoring progress towards a goal -checking outcomes -redirecting unsuccessful efforts -parents and teachers can help by pointing out important features of a task
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Standford-Binet Intelligence Scales
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-age 2 to adulthood -5 factors: general knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial processing, working memory, basic info processing
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Wechsler Intelligence Test for Children
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-6 to 10 years -4 factors: verbal reasoning, perceptual reasoning, working memory, processing speed
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Defining and Measuring Intelligence
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at around age 6, IQ becomes more stable and predicts school performance and education attainment
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Current IQ Tests
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-provide overall score representing general intelligence and separate scores measuring specific mental abilities -do not measure all aspects of intelligence
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Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Successful Intelligence
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-creative intelligence -practical intelligence -analytical intelligence
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Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences
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-musical, bodily kinesthetic, interpersonal, verbal, linguistic, logical, mathematical, naturalistic, visual spatial
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IQ
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-heredity: 40% of IQ -environment: poverty severely depresses intelligence of ethnic minority children
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Flynn Effect
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generational gains in IQ (not true because schooling has just gotten better)
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Cultural Influences on IQ
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-language use on tests could only apply to white test takers -specific knowledge only acquired through majority culture upbringing -stereotypes: fear of being judged by negative stereotype (girls math example)
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Academic Achievement and Class Size
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-smaller classes during K-3 predicts greater likelihood of graduating from high school -teachers in small classes spend less time disciplining -better concentration -more class participation
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Metalinguistic Awareness
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understands words and what they are used for
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Language Development
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-vocabulary increases four-fold because of reading -grasp double meanings and puns -mastery of grammar increases -use of narratives
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Bilingual
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-either learn two at once or one and then the other -code switching: change languages in the same sentence -more efficient with executive function skills (suppress other languages)
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Industry vs. Inferiority
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-industry: developing a sense of competence at useful (combines positive but realistic self-concept pride in accomplishment, moral responsibility) -inferiority: pessimism and lack of confidence in one's ability to do things well
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Self-Concept
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-refined and organized into stable and psychological dispositions -children form an ideal self that they use to evaluate actual self
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Influences on Self-Concept
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-cognitive development influences structure of self -cognitive capacities and feedback from others influence content of self-concept -depend on culture: asian parents want interdependence and western want self-assertion
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Self-Esteem in Middle Childhood
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differentiates and adjusts to more realistic level
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Four Broad Self-Evaluations
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academic, social, physical/athletic, physical (correlates most with self concept)
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Influences on Self-Esteem
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-cultural values -gender-stereotyped beliefs -child rearing practices (authoritative parents build self-esteem while controlling parents undermine self-esteem)
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Attributions
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explain causes of behaviors
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Mastery-Oriented Attributions
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-attribute success to ability -focus on learning goals
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Learned Helplessness
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-success is attributed to luck -focus on performance goals
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Person Praise vs. Process Praise
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you are smart vs. you worked very hard
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Learning vs Grades
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people care more about their grades than actually learning
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Cognitive Development
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more realistic view of abilities
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Emotional Development
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-self-conscious emotions (pride and guilt) -clearly governed by personal responsibility even when no adult is present -pride= further challenges -guilt= make amends and strive for self-improvement
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Emotional Understanding
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-explain emotion by referring to internal states -appreciated of mixed emotions
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Emotional Self-Regulation
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-coping with stress: problem-centered vs. emotion-centered coping
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Emotional Self-Efficacy
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-being in control of emotional experience -fosters favorable self-image
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Moral Rules
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consideration of intentions and context of violations
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Peer Groups
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form on basis of proximity and similarity
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Peer Culture
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involves specialized vocab, dress code, place to hang out
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Trust
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defining feature of friendship
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Likeability
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extent to which a child is viewed as a worthy social partner
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Categories of Peer Acceptance
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-popular children -rejected children -controversial children -neglected children -average children
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Ways to Help Rejected Children
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combine social skills training with other treatments
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Bullies
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-20% are bullies -~25% are repeatedly victimized -20-40% of youths have been cyber bullied
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Approaches to Reduce Bullying
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-change victimized children's negative opinions about themselves -help acquire social skills -change environment to promote pro-social attitudes and behaviors
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Coregulation
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letting children take charge of moment-by-moment decision making
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Immediate Consequences of Parental Divorce
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-instability -conflict -drop in income -parental stres -disorganized family life
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Factors that Influence Children's Adjustment to Divorce
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-sex of child -which parent remarries -temperament -mother's professional life -father involvement
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Benefits of Maternal Employment
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-children have higher self-esteem -positive family and peer relations -fewer gender stereotypes -better grades -more father involvement
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Factors Relating to Child Sexual Abuse
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-more often against girls -male abuser -either parent or someone that knows parents well -technology
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Consequences of Child Sexual Abuse
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-anxiety -depression -low self-esteem -mistrust of adults -anger -sleep difficulties -loss of appetite -generalized fearfulness
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Prevention and Treatment
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-long-term therapy with both children and parents -justice system -educational programs
