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5. Explain why it is difficult to interpret & understand nonverbal communication & how to ensure that the message received is accurate.

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-To avoid misinterpretation, competent communicators are observant of, & sensitive to, the nonverbal messages they receive; consider all their possible meanings; & avoid jumping to conclusions.

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4. Compare & contrast different types of nonverbal communication & the ways competent communicators are aware of their nonverbal communication.

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-Every day we perform a wide range of nonverbal behaviors without thinking about them. • Facial expressions & body movements • Eye behavior, or oculesics • Facial expressions • Body movements • Physical characteristics • Touch • Space • Time • Paralanguage/vocalics • Silence • Artifacts • Environment

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3. Identify the 5 common functions of nonverbal communication.

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-Nonverbal communication adds life to our interaction • Complements what is being said • Repeats verbal behavior • Regulates verbal behavior • Subsitutes for verbal behavior • Deceives

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2. Explain the 6 key characteristics of nonverbal communication.

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- There are many reasons for studying nonverbal communication, the primary one being its pervasive effects on what we communicate to others. 1. Nonverbal communication occurs constantly. 2. Nonverbal communication depends on context. 3. Nonverbal communication is more believable than verbal communication. 4. Nonverbal communication is a primary means of expression. 5. Nonverbal communication is related to culture. 6. Nonverbal communication is ambiguous.

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1. Differentiate nonverbal communication from verbal communication.

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- Nonverbal communication includes all behaviors, symbols, attributes, or objects, whether intended or not, that communicate messages with social meaning. It is not only what we say, but how we say it with our tone of voice, body movements, appearance, & use of space, touch, & time.

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GUIDELINES sending & interpreting nonverbal communication (Sending)

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1. Be aware of how people react to you 2. Ask friends or colleagues for their help 3. Make a video of yourself to see how you appear to others 4. Adapt to the context or situation in which you find yourself

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GUIDELINES sending & interpreting nonverbal communication (Interpreting)

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1. Nonverbal cues have multiple meanings 2. Nonverbal cues are interdependent 3. Nonverbal cues are subtle 4. Use descriptive feedback to reduce misunderstandings

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Descriptive feedback-

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Describing to the sender what you perceived the message to mean. One method to help verify the meaning of a nonverbal message, if you are not certain of the sender's intention, is to use descriptive feedback. Descriptive feedback is not always necessary, but when a message seems inconsistent with the situation or other behaviors or when you're not sure you have accurately interpreted an important message, you should verify your perceptions with the other person. When using descriptive feedback, do not express agreement or disagreement or draw conclusions; simply describe the message you believe was communicated.

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Functional approach-

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Using more than one nonverbal message at a time to look for meaning. This approach examines nonverbal behavior not by isolating nonverbal cues but by seeing how each cue interacts & works with the others to perform various communicative functions.

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Self-monitoring-

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The willingness to change behavior to fit situations, the awareness of effects on others, & the ability to regulate nonverbal cues & other factors to influence others' impressions. It entails concern with both projecting the desired image & the ability to assess the effects of the image communicated to others.

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Artifact-

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Are personal adornments or possessions that communicate information about us; Such things as automobiles, eyeglasses, briefcases, grooming, clothing, hair color, body piercings, tattoos & makeup communicate about our age, gender, status, role, class, importance, group membership, personality, & relationship to others. For example, what are you telling people by the type & color of vehicle you drive? A Silver SUV conveys a different message from a green sedan, as does a sports car versus a minivan & a Hummer versus a Chevy Volt.

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Silence or vocal pauses

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are communicative, powerful messages that often say volumes, whether intended or not.

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Silence-

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An extended period of time without sound; The sound of silence is a contradiction in terms; as hard as you try, it is almost impossible to have complete & absolute silence. Silence sometimes seems very awkward in a conversation, especially when you are talking to someone whom you do not know well & who might be of higher status than you. Silence can prevent certain topics from surfacing or stop someone from saying something that he or she might later regret. Silence is expected in certain context, as, for example, during a funeral or while listening to a speech presentation, or it can be self-imposed as a way of thinking or doing nothing at all. Silence has many possible meanings, none of which are easily interpreted. Cultural differences are related to silence. The intercultural implications of silence are as diverse as those of other nonverbal cues. Competent communicators know they must be careful not to assume that others are communicating only when they are talking.

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Vocal pause-

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A hesitation, usually short in duration; Vocal pauses can be used to emphasize a word or thought or to make a point to get others' attention. Vocal pauses or prolonged periods of silence can also create the perception that you are unsure of yourself, unprepared, or nervous.

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Paralanguage or vocalics-

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The way we vocalize, or say, the words we speak. Paralanguage includes not only speech sounds but also speech rate, accents articulation, pronunciation, & silence. Sounds such as groans, yawns, coughs, laughter, crying & yelping, which are nonsymbolic but can communicate very specific messages, are also included. Expressions such as "um", "uh-huh", "ya know", "like", & "OK" are referred to as vocal fillers & are considered paralanguage. Vocal fillers are often sprinkled throughout conversations without forethought or a set order. They might reflect nervousness, speech patterns of a particular subculture, or a personal habit. In any case, the use of vocal fillers can influence our image positively or damage & degrade ourselves & others. Paralanguage includes pitch (how high or low the voice is), vocal force (intensity or loudness of the voice), rate (speed), quality (overall impression of the voice), and pauses or silences.

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Chronemics-

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The study of how people perceive, structure, & use time as communication. Our use of time communicates messages about us, so it is important to adhere to the time-related norms of the culture in which we are communicating. Individuals can differ in their approaches to time. For example, some people are always looking to the future, others long for the past, & still others live for the moment. Each approach communicates something about people & the ways they use time to communicate who they are. Each culture teaches its members about time expectations, & these expectations vary. In some cultures, being punctual is expected; in others, it is not important, and, in fact, people are expected to be late.

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Territoriality-

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The need to identify certain areas of space as one's own.

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Public space-

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The fourth zone, is twelve feet or more. This distance is common for public speaking situations or other formal presentations.

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Social space-

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The third zone is called ____. It ranges from four to twelve feet & is where most professional conversations occur, as well as group interactions, such as meetings.

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Personal space-

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The second zone is referred to as personal space & ranges from distances of one-and-a-half feet to four feet between people. It is not unusual for us to carry on conversations or other activities with close friends & relatives in this zone. If someone we don't know enters this zone, we are likely to feel uncomfortable or violated.

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Intimate space-

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Is defined as the distance from no space between 2 individuals to one-and-a-half feet between two individuals. This zone is the most personal, & it is usually open only to those with whom we are well acquainted, unless such closeness is physically forced on us, such as in a crowded train or elevator.

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Proxemics-

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The study of the use of space & of distance between individuals when they are communicating. Statements such as "Give me some room to operate," signs that say "Keep out," & the bumper sticker that reads "Keep off my" followed by a picture of a donkey are all attempts to regulate the distance between people. Such behaviors are of special interest to researchers in proxemics. Edward T. Hall, anthropologist & author of two classic books, The silent language and The hidden dimension, coined the term proxemics. Hall was a pioneer in helping to explain how space is used in North American culture. In his study of proxemics, Hall identified 4 zones.

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Category of touch: Sexual arousal

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Definition/explanation: The most intimate level of personal contact with another; expresses physical between consenting individuals Example: Sexual touch behavior includes foreplay & intercourse.

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Category of touch: Love-intimacy

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Definition/explanation: Occurs in romantic relationships between lovers & spouses; highly communicative & usually requires consent between both parties, even though one party might not reciprocate. Example: Two people hug, caress, embrace & kiss

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Category of touch: Friendship-warmth

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Definition/explanation: Expresses an appreciation of the special attributes of another or warm feelings for another; the most misinterpreted type of touching behavior Example: Two men or two women meet in an airport, hug, & walk off with their arms around each other. Atheletes touch a shoulder or pat each other on their buttocks.

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Category of touch: Social-polite

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Definition/explanation: Acknowledges another person according to the norms or rules of a society Example: Two people shake hands in American culture or kiss in other cultures to greet one another.

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Category of touch: Functional-professional

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Definition/explanation: Unsympathetic, impersonal, cold, or businesslike touch Example: A doctor touches a patient during a physical examination or a tailor touches a customer while measuring.

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Haptics-

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Tactile, or touch, communication; one of the most basic forms of communication. Touching is referred to as either tactile communication or ____. Is one of the most basic forms of communication.

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Category: Emblems

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Characteristics: These translate directly into words & are used for specific words or phrases. Meanings of emblems are like those of words—arbitrary changeable with time, learned, & culturally determined. Examples: A hitchhiker's extended thumb, the thumb & circle sign for "OK", the peace sign.

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Category: Illustrators

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Characteristics: These accent, reinforce, or emphasize a verbal message. Examples: A child holding up his hand to indicate how tall he is while saying, "I'm a big boy"; an instructor underlining a word on a PowerPoint slide to emphasize it.

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Category: Regulators

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Characteristics: These control, monitor, or maintain interaction between or among speakers & listeners. These are cues that tell us when to stop, continue, hurry, elaborate, make things more interesting, or let someone else speak. The dialogue at the beginning of the chapter is a good example of the need for regulators. Examples: Eye contract, shift in posture, nod of the head, looking at a clock or wristwatch.

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Category: Affect displays

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Characteristics: These are body movements that express emotions. Through your face is the primary means of displaying affect, your body may also be used. Examples: Sad face, slouching, jumping up & down.

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Category: Adaptors

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Characteristics: These help one feel at ease in communication situations. They are difficult to interpret & require the most speculation Examples: Scratching, smoothing hair, playing with coins, putting hands in front of the face, moving closer to someone.

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Facial management techniques-

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Control of facial muscles to conceal inappropriate or unacceptable responses

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Technique: Intensifying

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Definition: Exaggeration of reactions to meet others' expectations Example: You receive a gift & try to look completely surprised, excited, & delighted.

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Technique: Deintensifying

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Definition: Understatement of reactions to meet other's expectations Example: You receive an A on a speech; a friend receives a C. You tone down your elation, just in case your friend feels bad about receiving a lower grade.

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Technique: Neutralizing

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Definition: Avoidance of any emotional expression in a situation; "poker face" shows no emotion. Example: You show no fear or sadness when, although fear or sadness may be justified, you don't want to show your emotions.

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Technique: Masking

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Definition: Replacement of one expression with another considered more appropriate for the situation Example: You smile when a friend wins a scholarship & you don't, even though you think you deserve it.

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Types of nonverbal communication:

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• Facial expressions & body movements; eye behavior or oculesics, facial expressions, body movements • Physical characteristics • Touch • Space • Time • Paralangauge/Vocalics • Silence • Artifacts • Environment

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Facial expression-

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Configuration of the face that can reflect, augment, contradict, or be unrelated to a speaker's vocal delivery.

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Oculesics-

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Study of eye movement or eye behavior.

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Eye behavior-

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A category of kinesics & a subcategory of facial expressions that includes any movement or behavior of the eyes.

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Kinesics-

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Sometimes referred to as "body language" any movement of the face or body that communicates a message.

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Functions of nonverbal communication:

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• Complementing verbal behavior • Repeating verbal behavior • Regulating verbal behavior • Substituting for verbal behavior • Deceiving

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Category: Deceiving

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Characteristic: Nonverbal cues that purposely disguise or mislead to create a false impression Example: A doctor examining a patient discovers a serious problem, but the doctor's facial expressions remain neutral so as not to alarm the patient.

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Category: Substituting

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Characteristic: Replaces a verbal message without nonverbal signals to exchange thoughts Example: Two people use hand signals to communicate, because the environment is too loud to hear each other's voices.

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Category: Regulating

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Characteristic: Controls flow of communication Example: A person nods his head as a way of communicating, "I am interested in what you are saying," implying "tell me more".

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Category: Repeating

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Characteristic: Expresses a message identical to the verbal one Example: A person says "yes" & nods her head up & down.

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Category: Complementing

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Characteristic: Completes, describes, or accents a verbal message Example: A person needs help immediately, so he yells as loudly as possible.

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Why should you know about nonverbal communication? An overview:

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• Carries most of the meaning of a message, particularly feelings & attitudes toward others. • Is a frequent source of misunderstandings. • Is not governed by a set of universal rules. • Is multichanneled, complicated, and ever-changing. • Is bound to context & culture. • Is more likely than verbal communication to be spontaneous & unintentional. • Is powerful & more believable than verbal communication. • Is learned (not always consciously). • Is critical in relationship initiation, development, & termination.

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Characteristics of nonverbal communication:

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• Nonverbal communication occurs constantly • Nonverbal communication depends on context • Nonverbal communication is more believable than verbal communication • Nonverbal communication is a primary means of expression • Nonverbal communication is related to culture • Nonverbal communication is ambiguous

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Nonverbal communication-

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Behaviors, symbols, attributes, or objects—whether intended or not—that communicate messages with social meaning; Includes tone of voice, facial expressions, posture, gestures & appearance, all of which communicate messages. Can enhance or change the meaning of words, such as when tone of voice, volume, or facial expression adds emphasis to meaning.

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Communication Competence-

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The ability to take part in effective communication that is characterized by skills and understandings that enable communicators to exchange messages successfully.

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Communication-

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The simultaneous sharing and creating of meaning through human symbolic interaction.

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Social Media-

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Highly accessible technologies that facilitate communication, interaction, and connection with others.

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Social Network-

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A group of individuals who are connected by friendship, family, common interests, beliefs, or knowledge.

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Why should we study communication?

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- Communication and our technological society - Communication and career development - Communication and ethical behavior - Communication and our multicultural society

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Ethics-

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An individual's system of moral principles.

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Plagiarism-

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The use of another person's information, language, or ideas without citing the originator and making it appear that the user is the originator.

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Principles of communication?

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1. Communication is a process. 2. Communication is a system. 3. Communication is transactional. 4. Communication can be intentional or unintentional.

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Process-

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Series of actions that has no beginning or end and is constantly changing.

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System-

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Combination of parts interdependently acting to form a whole.

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Transaction-

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Exchange of communication in which the communicators act simultaneously; that is, encoding and decoding occur at the same time.

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Intentional Communication-

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A message that is purposely sent to a specific receiver.

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Unintentional Communication-

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A message that is not intended to be sent or is not intended for the person who receives it.

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Essential Components of Communication?

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1. Source/Sender 2. Message 3. Interference/Noise 4. Channel 5. Receiver 6. Feedback 7. Environment 8. Context

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Source-

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The creator of messages.

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Source/Sender:

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1. Determining meanings, 2. Encoding, 3. Sending, 4. Reacting

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Encoding-

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Process by which the source translates thoughts or feelings into words, sounds, and physical expressions, which together make up the actual message that is to be sent.

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Message-

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The communication produced by the source.

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Interference-

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Anything that changes the meaning of an intended message.

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Channel-

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The means by which messages flow between sources and receivers.

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Receiver-

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The individual who analyzes and interprets the message.

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Decoding-

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The process of translating a message into the thoughts or feelings that were communicated.

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Feedback-

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The response to a message that the receiver sends to the source.

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Environment-

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The psychological and physical surroundings in which communication occurs.

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Context-

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Circumstances or situation in which communication occurs.

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Types of Communication?

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- Intrapersonal communication - Interpersonal communication - Public communication - Mass communication - Communication via social media

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Intrapersonal Communication-

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The process of understanding information within oneself.

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Interpersonal Communication-

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The creating and sharing of meaning between people who are in a relationship.

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Dyadic Communication-

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An exchange of information between two people.

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Interview-

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A carefully planned and executed question-and-answer session designed to exchange desired information between two parties.

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Small-group Communication-

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An exchange of information among a relatively small number of people, ideally five to seven, who share a common purpose, such as completing a task, solving a problem, making a decision, or sharing information.

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Public Communication-

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Transmission of a message from one person who speaks to a number of individuals who listen.

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Mass Communication-

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Occurs when professionals communicate with or to a large number of people via radio, television, newspapers, magazines, books, or movies.

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Communication via Social Media

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Any communication transmitted through digital devices or platforms (iPhones, cell phones, Blackberries, text messaging, Facebook, Twitter, or Skype).

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Interactivity-

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Refers to the ability of a communication tool to facilitate social interaction between groups or individuals.

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Temporal Structure-

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Refers to the time it takes to send and receive messages.

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Synchronous-

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Channels of communication that allow participants to simultaneously serve as sender and receiver.

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Asynchronous-

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Channels of communication that allow participants to take turns serving as sender and receiver.

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Social Cues-

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The verbal and nonverbal features of a message that offer more information about the context, the meaning, and the identities of the involved parties.

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Replicability-

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When communication occurs in an environment that makes it easy to record and redistribute past messages.

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"Go Viral"-

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A phrase used to describe a message that reaches enormous audiences by "infecting" viewers and users with the message.

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Distinguishing Social Media from Face-to-face communication

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• Interactivity • Temporal structure • Social cues • Replicability • Storage • Reach • Mobility

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Misconceptions about communication

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1. Myth 1: Communication is a cure-all. 2. Myth 2: Quantity means quality. 3. Myth 3: Meaning is in the words we use. 4. Myth 4: We have a natural ability to communicate. 5. Myth 5: Communication is reversible.

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Improving communication competence GUIDELINES:

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1. We must understand the role of communication in our lives, be aware of the complexity of the communication process & different types of communication, & understand how face to face communication is different from communication via social media. 2. We also need to realize that myths about communication may hinder our ability to develop effective communication. 3. Good communicators have developed a broad a broad communication repertoire, a range of communication behaviors from which to choose. 4. Competent communicators process the ability to coordinate several communication tasks simultaneously. For example, a competent communicator will, at the same time, choose a way of conveying a message, consider what the receiver's various responses might be & plan a way to restate the message if the first attempt is not effective. 5. Background knowledge about communication, practical experience, & feedback given in the classroom will help you think on your feet & make better decisions as you communicate. You will also gain confidence & the ability to evaluate your skills as your work in this course progresses.

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Repertoire-

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Wide range of communication behaviors from which effective communicators make choices.

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1. Define communication.

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-Communication is the simultaneous sharing & creating of meaning through human symbolic interaction. It involves a range of behaviors & occurs in a variety of situations.

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2. Identify four reasons for studying communication.

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-The ability to communicate (not simply to utter words) is learned, learning to be a competent communicator is a difficult, lifelong project. • We live in a technological society & use social media to interact with others in our social network. • Communication plays a vital role in career success. • Communication involves a high degree of ethical behavior. • We live in a multicultural society & interact with people from different cultures.

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3. Explain the fundamental principles of communication.

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-To appreciate the true nature of communication, it is important to understand 4 fundamental principles. These principles are readily applicable to life beyond the class room. • Communication is a process because it involves a series of actions that has no beginning or end & is constantly changing. • Communication is a system, a combination of parts interdependently acting to form a whole. • Communication is transactional because messages are simultaneously sent & received between people. • Communication can be intentional or unintentional.

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4. Define the essential components in the communication process.

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-Several components interact when two people are communicating. These components are constantly in flux as communicators react to each other. • The source/sender is the creator of the message. • A message is the communication produced by the source. • Anything that changes the meaning of an intended message is called interference. • A channel is the means by which messages flow between sources & receivers. • A receiver analyzes, interprets, & translates messages into meaning. • Feedback is the response to a message that a receiver sends back to a source. • The environment includes the psychological and physical surroundings in which communication occurs. • The broad circumstances or situation in which communication occurs is referred to as the context.

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5. Differentiate the various types of communication: intrapersonal, interpersonal (including group), public, mass, and communication via social media.

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-The types of communication is usually distinguished by the number of people involved, by the purpose of the message, & by the degree of formality with which it occurs. • Intrapersonal communication is the process of understanding information within oneself. • Interpersonal communication is creating & sharing meaning between persons who are in a relationship. • Public communication occurs when a message is transmitted from one person to a number of individuals who listen. • Mass communication means that professionals are communicating with or to a very large number of people via radio, television, newspapers, magazines, books, or movies. • Communication via social media is any communication transmitted through digital devices or platforms such as iPhones, text messaging, Facebook, Twitter, Skype, and so on.

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6. Differentiate social media from face-to-face communication.

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-Several concepts help us distinguish different forms of social media from one another & from face-to-face communication. These concepts help us understand how we make connections with others in an age in which we rely more & more on social media. • Interactivity refers to the ability of a communication tool to facilitate social interaction between groups or individuals. • A social media devices's temporal structure refers to the time it takes to send & receive messages. • Social cues are the verbal & nonberal features of a message that offer more information about the context, the meaning, & the identities of the involved parties. • Social media's Replicability means that communication can occur in an environment that makes it easy to record & redistribute past messages. • Unlike face-to-face communication, social media have tremendous reach, or the ability to connect with individuals in local & long-distance places. • Social media feature varying degrees of mobility, or the extent to which a device is portable or stationary.

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7. Summarize five common myths about communication.

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-Several misconceptions keep many of us from examining our own communication more closely. Many people who have problems communicating tend to look for the fault in places other than themselves. • Communication has the magical power to solve all of our problems. It does not. • We often assume that the more we communicate, the better. However, the quantity of communication is not the same as quality. • Meaning is in the words we use. Actually, meanings are in people & not in the words they use. • We have a natural ability to communicate. That ability, like almost everything we do, is learned. • Communication is reversible. In truth, once something is said, it is out there. We cannot take it back.

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Connecting Self & Communication

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1. Differentiate among self-concept, self-image, and self-esteem. 2. Characterize the role of culture in determining self-concept. 3. Characterize the role of gender in determining self-concept. 4. Explain the roles of self-fulfilling prophecy & impression management as they relate to self-concept. 5. Identify 6 ways to improve self-concept.

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Self-concept-

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A person's perceived self, which consists of an organized collection of beliefs & attitudes about self. Self-concept consists of 2 subcomponents: self image & self esteem

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1. Self-image-

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How we see ourselves or our mental picture of self (for example, I see myself as being a person, an athlete, a student, a worker, a female, a daughter, and a mother);

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2. Self-esteem-

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Our feelings & attitudes toward ourselves or how we evaluate ourselves (for example, I feel that I am an OK person, an average athlete, a good student, a hard worker, a sexy woman, a loving daughter, and an average mother)

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• Both self-image & self-esteem

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make up our self-concept.

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• Self-concept and perception

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are closely related, so it is difficult to separate them. They constantly interact.

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Values-

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A person's perceived self, which consists of an organized collection of beliefs and attitudes about self. Generally, relatively long-lasting ideals that guide our behavior are called values. Values can be classified into broad categories, such as aesthetic, religious, humanitarian, intellectual, and material. Each category determines our behavior as well as our communication and is reflected in our self-concept. Values can have both positive and negative influences on how we behave and communicate.

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Attitudes-

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An evaluative feeling, viewpoint, or way of thinking about oneself, others, events, ideas, or objects. Attitudes help determine self-concept; but, unlike values, they are more narrowly defined. The relationship between values and attitudes is close because values are reflected in attitudes. Your attitude says something about your value system.

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Beliefs-

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A conviction or confidence in the truth of something, that is not based on absolute proof. Closely related to attitudes are beliefs. We have, for example, beliefs about history, religion, schools, events, people, and ourselves. Our beliefs, like our attitudes and values, have a hierarchy of importance. Our most important beliefs, such as those about religion, education, and family life, do not change easily, but the less important ones, such as those regarding today's weather or the outcome of a sports event, last only a moment.

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Making clear and absolute distinctions among values, attitudes, and beliefs

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is difficult because they are interrelated.

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Value (ideal):

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People should love one another.

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Attitude (feeling or position):

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Love is good.

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Belief (conviction):

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Love is important in our lives.

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Attitudes differ from beliefs

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in that attitudes include an evaluation of whether someone or something is good or bad. Beliefs, in turn, reflect the perception of whether something is true or false. Your attitudes & beliefs about love may change as a result of your experiences, but the value you place on love endures.

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Self-concept & the way we communicate have a direct connection:

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Communication affects our self-concept, & our self-concept influences how & what we communicate.

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Values-

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Definition- Broad-based ideals that are relatively long-lasting. Example- Social media have made our lives more convenient.

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Attitudes-

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Definition- Evaluative dispositions, feelings, or positions about ourselves, other persons, events, ideas, or objects Example- Social media users are more tech savvy than nonusers.

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Beliefs-

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Definition- Convictions or confidence in the truth of something that lacks absolute proof Example- Social media are the only way to communicate effectively with others.

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Personal-social identity continuum

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The 2 ways the self can be categorized; at a personal level, in which the uniqueness of the individual is emphasized; & at the social identity level, in which the self is thought of as a member of a group. A fundamental principle of the self, the social identity perspective, says that individuals perceive themselves differently depending on where they are at a particular moment in time. This principle is illustrated by the personal-social identity continuum. The personal identity end of this continuum refers to when we think of ourselves primarily as individuals. The social identity end refers to when we think of ourselves as members of specific social groups. Because it is impossible to experience all aspects of our self-concept simultaneously, the specific aspect of our identity that is prominent at any given moment will influence how we think of ourselves, and this, in turn, has consequences for our behavior. This idea is evident when we think of ourselves as unique individuals. Our personal identities are prominent, and this is likely to result in self-descriptions that emphasize how we are different from others.

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Individualistic orientation-

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Tendency to stress self or personal goals & achievements over group goals & achievements. An individualistic orientation stresses self or personal goals & achievements over group goals, an "I" consciousness, & a tendency to focus on individual accomplishments. Prescribing self-interest as a central determinant of one's behavior.

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Collectivistic orientation-

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Tendency to put aside individual goals for the wellbeing of the group.

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Collectivistic orientation-

answer

• Self-concept variations are a function of culture. Those in collectivistic orientated societies usually put individual goals aside for the well-being of the group or whole of society. • Being able to communicate with individuals from different cultural backgrounds requires an understanding both of their culture & of their culture's influence on self-concept & the ability to adapt communication to accommodate differences. • Interestingly, in today's global society, our self-concept is in part established through social interactions with others both inside & outside our culture.

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Gender & self-concept

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• Gender is a crucial element in our personal & social identity. • Parts: Sex & gender, gender stereotypes, & gender expectations • The terms sex & gender are often used interchangeably. • We defined gender in chapter 2, as socially constructed masculine & feminine behaviors that are learned.

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Sex-

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The anatomical & physiological differences between males & females that are genetically determined. Sex is defined in biological terms as the anatomical & physiological differences between males and females that are genetically determined.

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Gender

answer

• The origin of gender differences is sometimes a matter of dispute, but most researchers agree that gender attributes are based entirely on what one learns (such as an association between hairstyle and femininity), whereas other attributes may be based entirely on biological determinants (such as the presence of facial hair).

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Gender identity

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• Each of us has a gender identity: A key part of our self-concept is the label male or female.

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• Many similarities can be found in the communication behaviors of men & women.

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For example, there are soft-spoken men & verbally aggressive women; many men discuss their families & friends, & many women discuss sports and investments.

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Androgynous-

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Having both male & female traits. • Psychologists indicate that women & men who are androgynous—have both male & female traits—are more likely to be successful in their interactions & careers than those who are totally masculine or feminine in their behaviors.

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Self-fulfilling prophecy-

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Expectations we have of ourselves or that others have of us that help to create the conditions that lead us to act in predictable ways.

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Self-fulfilling prophecy-

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• Our own & other's expectations lead us to act in predictable ways. • The expectation becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy. • It can be a powerful force for shaping our self-concept.

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• Self-esteem

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can affect the predictions people make about themselves. It is a matter of attribution: People with positive, high self-esteem confidently attribute their success to past successes; therefore they expect to succeed in the future. People with low self-esteem, however, attribute any success they might have had to luck & so predict they will not necessarily succeed again unless they are lucky.

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Impression management-

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Creating a positive image of oneself to influence the perceptions of others.

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Facework-

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A term that is used to describe the verbal & nonverbal ways we act to maintain our own presenting image.

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Facework-

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Specific tactics used when presenting the self to others are referred to as facework. Facework is a term first used by Erving Goffman, a sociologist; to describe the verbal & nonverbal ways we act to maintain our own presenting image. Goffman says that each of us creates various roles or characters that we want others to believe represent us. He also suggests that we maintain face by putting on a front when we desire to impress others.

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Improving-self GUIDELINES:

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1. Decide what you would like to change or improve about yourself. 2. Describe why you feel the way you do about yourself. 3. Make a commitment to improve or change. 4. Set reasonable goals for yourself. 5. Decide on the specific actions you are going to take. 6. Associate with positive people whenever possible.

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1. Differentiate among self-concept, self-image, & self-esteem.

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Self-concept (or self-identity) is how we perceive ourselves, which consists of our beliefs & attitudes about self. Self-image is how we see ourselves—our mental picture of self. Self-esteem is our feelings & attitudes toward ourselves or how we evaluate ourselves. • Self-concept is based on our values (long-lasting ideals that guide our behavior), attitudes (evaluative dispositions, feelings, or positions about oneself), and beliefs (convictions that we hold or confidence in the truth of something that is not based on absolute proof). • Our self-concept determines our behavior & the related communication.

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2. Characterize the role of culture in determining self-concept.

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Competent communicators know that communicating with people from different cultural backgrounds requires an understanding of others cultures as well as an ability to adapt to each.

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3. Characterize the role of gender in determining self-concept.

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Those who understand gender roles are more likely to be successful in their interactions & careers than are those who do not. • The gender identity, not the biological sex, becomes part of a person's self-concept. • Gender stereotyping can affect communication behaviors of both males & females.

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4. Explain the roles of self-fulfilling prophecy & impression management as they relate to self-concept.

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Our own & others' expectations determine how we behave. • Self-fulfilling prophecy is a communicative force that influences self-concept. • Behaviors intended to create a positive self-image of ourselves to influence others is referred to as impression management.

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5. Identify 6 ways to improve self-concept.

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1. Decide what you would like to change or improve about yourself. 2. Describe why you feel the way you do about yourself. 3. Make a commitment to improving or changing yourself. 4. Set reasonable goals for yourself. 5. Decide on the specific actions you are going to take. 6. Associate with positive people whenever possible.

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5. Describe how accurate, vivid, immediate, appropriate, & metaphorical language can help you be a more effective communicator.

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• Accurate language allows you to be precise & to eliminate misinterpretations. • Vivid language slows you to be animated & interesting. • Immediate language identifies the speaker's feelings & allows the message to be more relevant to the listener. • Language is used differently in varying situations. You should choose language that is appropriate for the listener & the context. • Metaphorical language can help you create shared meanings when you compare the known & the unknown. Metaphors allow us to structure & describe what we think, how we perceive the world, & what we do. • Technology has created new words & affected the ways we connect with others on a global level, but, again, we need to make effective choices in order to share meaning with others. • Language is culture bound, so we need to be especially aware of effective language in order to communicate clearly.

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4. Illustrate the impact of technology on language usage.

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• Advances in technology have created a faster, global means of communicating. • New words come into the language rapidly. • Social media outlets have a tremendous impact on our lives & our communication with others.

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3. Explain how language can create barriers to effective communication.

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• Language can be misunderstood because meanings depend on commonalities. • Language can be misunderstood because people believe that words have meanings in themselves. • Language can shape our attitudes. • Indiscrimination occurs when we neglect individual differences & lump things together. • When we fail to identify people, objects, ideas, & events by time, we are open to misunderstanding. • Language can cause polarization when we view & use extremes. This either-or language leads to failure to communicate. • We should avoid sexist or homophobic language if we wish to avoid stereotypes & use language that helps us make connections with others.

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2. Demonstrate how the elements of language (sounds, words, grammar, and meaning) affect communication.

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• The 4 elements of language are sounds, words, grammar, & meaning. • Most of us are born with the ability to make speech sounds, but people do not all learn to produce the sounds in the same ways. • Words represent objects & concepts. • Grammar is the set of rules we use to join words into phrases & sentences. • Meaning allows us to use words & patterns to exchange messages between people.

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Assess the importance of language in communication events.

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• Language is the way we create & share meaning with others. • Language is powerful. • Language allows us to make connections with others. • Language has the power to influence our perceptions of others & theirs of us. • Language affects our emotions. • Language affects our relationships.

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Metaphor-

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Is a figure of speech that associates two things or ideas, not commonly linked, as a means of description. Metaphors help us to structure what we think, how we perceive the word, & what we do. Metaphorical language pervades our everyday language & our thoughts. Metaphorical language is culture bound, & most metaphors have meaning only within a specific language community. If your receivers cannot identify with a particular metaphor you use, it will be meaningless to them.

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Use metaphorical language:

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-According to some language scholars, our way of looking at the world around us fundamentally metaphorical.

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Verbal immediacy-

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Identifies & projects the speaker's feelings & makes the message more relevant to the listener. Verbal immediacy draws listeners in & involves them in the subject at hand.

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Verbal immediacy-

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The following statements illustrate different levels of verbal immediacy. The first sentence displays a high immediacy level, & the last displays a low immediacy level: 1. We will have a great time at the baseball game. 2. You & I will enjoy the baseball game. 3. I think you & I may enjoy baseball. 4. People often enjoy baseball games. The first statement is directly related to the speaker, the listener, & the situation. It is assertive, & the speaker makes a connection with the listener by using the word we. In each successive statement, the speaker decreases the intensity of this association with the listener and the event. The language becomes less immediate, more distant in tone.

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Verbal immediacy

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also makes the speaker appear relaxed, confident, competent, & effective. In addition, receivers tend to more readily view messages characterized by immediacy as similar to their own beliefs than those cast in language unrelated to the speaker, topic, or receiver.

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Vividness-

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Active, direct & fresh language that brings a sense of excitement, urgency, & forcefulness to a message. To communicate effectively, make your message animated & interesting. Such ______ tells your audience that they had better listen because what you have to say is important.

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Low-context culture-

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The meaning of the communication act is inferred from the messages being sent & not the location where the communication occurs. According to Hall, the United States is a low-context culture in which businesspeople are as likely to conduct business on the golf course, in a restaurant, or at a reception as they are in the workplace. People in a low-context culture typically are more assertive & more direct. They get to the point immediately.

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High-context culture-

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A culture in which the meaning of the communication act is inferred from the situation or location. In Japan ( a high-context culture) for example, businesspeople do not conduct business in a social setting, although they might refer to their business interests. Business is saved for the office or the meeting place. Dinner is a social event at which business is not conducted. Also, in high-context culture, language is indirect, nonspecific & not assertive.

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Linguistic relativity-

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According to communication scholar Sarah Trenholm, this hypothesis involves 2 theories: The theory that suggests that people from different language communities perceive the world differently.

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Linguistic determinism-

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According to communication scholar Sarah Trenholm, this hypothesis involves 2 theories: The theory that language determines thought.

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Sapir-Whorf hypothesis-

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An explanation of how thought influences our reality & how our thought process is influenced by our language. Anthropologist Edward T. Hall asserted that "all people are captives of the language they speak". Intercultural communication scholars use the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis to help explain the connection of culture & language. This hypothesis suggests that language helps us think & that culture & language are bound together.

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Using gender-inclusive language GUIDELINES

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1. Remove sexism from your communication. 2. Practice & reinforce nonsexist communication patterns. The ultimate goal are to use nonsexist language effortlessly in private conversation & to think in nonsexist terms. 3. Use familiar language whenever possible. When you must choose between sexiest language & an unfamiliar phrase, choose the unfamiliar phrase & practice it until it becomes familiar. 4. Do not arouse negative reactions in listeners by using awkward, cumbersome, highly repetitious, or unnecessary words. There are so many graceful & controlled ways to state your message inclusively that you need not use bland or offensive constructions. 5. Not all words need to be changed, so be sure to carefully analyze whether meanings of words need to be changed before doing so. 6. Check every outgoing message—written, oral, nonverbal, & email—for sexism before sending it.

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Sexist language-

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Language that creates sexual stereotypes or implies that one gender is superior to another. Sexual stereotypes & the assumption that one gender is superior characterize ______. In our society, sexist language involves an attitude as much as the use of specific words. Words with a positive connotation are often used to describe males—independent, logical, strong, confident, & aggressive; females are often associated with words having negative connotations—dependent, illogical, weak, gullible, & timid. Sexist language suggest that one gender is more important than, & superior to, the other.

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Gender-inclusive language-

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Language that does not discriminate against males or females.

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Pendulum effect-

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Escalating conflict between 2 individuals or groups that results from their use of polar terms to describe & defend their perceptions of reality. The pendulum represents a person's perception of reality, which includes feelings, attitudes, opinions & value judgments about the world. When the pendulum hangs in the center, a person's perception is considered realistic, virtuous, intelligent, sane, honest & honorable. Of course, most of us believe that our pendulums are at or near the center most of the time. When 2 individuals disagree in their perceptions of reality, their pendulum begin to move in opposite directions. The distance the pendulum swings represents their differences in opinion or conviction.

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Polarization-

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The tendency to view things in terms of extremes—rich or poor, beautiful or ugly, large or small, high or low, good or bad, intelligent or stupid—even though most things exist somewhere in between. This either-or, black-or-white way or thinking is aggravated by aspects of language. Polarization can be destructive, escalating conflict to the point at which 2 parties simply cannot communicate. This escalation is referred to as the pendulum effect.

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Dating-

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A form of indexing that sorts, people, events, ideas, & objects according to time. Dating, another technique for reducing indiscrimination. By telling when something occurred, we acknowledge that things change over time & add specificity to a statement. As an example of how important dating is, indicate the year in which you think something was probably made. Dating gives listeners valuable information that can increase their understanding of the intended message.

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Indexing-

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A technique to reduce indiscrimination by identifying the specific persons, ideas, events, or objects a statement refers to. There are ways to reduce indiscrimination in our communication. Indexing is one way to point up differences that distinguish various members of a group & thus reduce indiscrimination.

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Indiscrimination-

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The neglect or individual differences & overemphasis of similarities. Indiscrimination is a form of perceptual set in which a person chooses to ignore differences & changes in events, things, & people. Language plays a significant role in our tendency to see similarities between things, even when they don't exist. Nouns that categorize people encourage us to focus on similarities.

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Reducing bypassing GUIDELINES

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1. Be person-minded, not word minded. 2. Query & paraphrase. 3. Be approachable. 4. Be sensitive in contexts.

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Bypassing-

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A misunderstanding that occurs between a sender & a receiver because of the symbolic nature of language. Bypassing usually results from the false belief that each word has only one meaning & that words have meaning in themselves.

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Doublespeak-

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The deliberate misuse of language to distort meaning. Language can also be used to create doublespeak, or deliberately ambiguous messages. William Lutz, a professor at Rutgers University who wrote a book, Doublespeak, denouncing the use of words to conceal meaning, says that he can live with ordinary euphemisms, but his teeth are set on edge when a worker is told he has been "de-hired" because the firm is experiencing "negative employee retention". Doublespeak isn't just the natural work product or the bureaucratic mind, painstakingly invented by committees to cloak meaning. Doublespeak is not a slip of the tongue or language used improperly because of ignorance. It is a tool that the powerful use to achieve their ends without clearly communicating with those who may be affected by their actions or who may foot the bill for them. According to Lutz & other scholars, doublespeak is particularly harmful when it makes something inappropriate or negative appear to be appropriate or positive.

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Euphemism-

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The use of an inoffensive or mild expression in place of one that might offend, cause embarrassment, or suggest something unpleasant. Language is used to share meaning, but it can also be used to obscure, distort, or hide meaning. One way to obscure meaning is to use an euphemism. Our society also uses euphemisms to avoid taboo subjects or words that can trigger negative reactions. Euphemisms can defuse the emotional charge associated with controversial or difficult concepts. For example, when a person has died, we often use a euphemism such as "passed away" instead of a blunter word such as "died". The phrase "passed away" seems to make a difficult, complex situation more approachable. Euphemisms can also be used to enhance something, to make it seem a little more glamorous than it actually is.

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Slang-

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Language used by groups to keep the meaning of the communication within the group. Slang words change frequently & are specific to specific regions or groups. Other co-cultures, such as students, might use slang or words used to communicate only with those who know the words, & the words & meanings change quickly.

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Jargon-

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Language used by certain groups or specific disciplines that may be technical or too specialized to be understood by the general population. Co-cultures within a language community sometimes use words or phrases in ways that are unique to their group. Scientists, engineers, & health care providers use language that might be too specialized to be understood by the general public. This unique language is referred to as jargon.

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Meaning depends on commonalities:

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-The more communicators have in common in terms of background, experience, and attitudes, the more likely they are to hold similar meanings for the words they exchange. However, competent communicators should not assume too much about how others will interpret their messages; they should continuously refine messages based on the feedback they receive.

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Illustrates vague language:

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Sasha: Enrique, you said I could choose the movie & you would choose the restaurant for Friday's evening out. Have you made reservations? Enrique: Nah, we don't need reservations. Sasha: Why not? Enrique: I don't know when we'll get there. Sasha: Why not? Enrique: Yesterday I told the boss I'd stay late for a meeting, & I don't know how long it will last. Sasha: And when were you going to tell me? Enrique: I just did. ^This conversation is problematic because Enrique is vague & has not kept Sasha informed about the meeting & how it might affect their plans. Sasha expects to go to a movie & dinner & suddenly learns that neither one may be possible. The result is likely to be, at the very least, a disagreement about their plans. Enrique's responses were vague, & the lack of specificity & clarity led to unfulfilled expectations on Sasha's part. It's always a good idea to explain, define, or illustrate any vague words that may be misunderstood in our conversations

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Words can be specific or vague:

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-Just as abstract words provide little in the way of tangible things, specific & vague words can interfere with someone's receiving the meaning you intend. The use of vague words confuses the issue & sends unclear messages. Specific words allow the listener to share in the meaning you intend. Vague language can easily lead to misunderstandings & result in ineffective communication.

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Concrete word-

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A symbol for a specific thing that can be pointed to or physically experienced. Word meanings become more concrete when they refer to a specific person, place, or thing. Concrete language helps to reduce the number of possible interpretations of the sender's message, leaving less chance for misunderstanding. Concrete words are symbols for specific things that can be pointed to or physically experienced (seen, tasted, smelled, heard, or touched). For example, words such as flag, house food, & soda (pop) are concrete words. They represent specific, tangible objects, & therefore their meanings are usually quite clear.

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Abstract word-

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The symbol for an idea, quality, or relationship. Abstract words, however, are symbols for ideas, qualities, & relationships. Abstract words represent intangible things, or things that cannot be experienced through the senses; thus, their meanings depend on the experiences & intentions of the persons using them. For instance, words such as beauty, liberty, joy, and stubborn stand for ideas or symbols that signify different things to different people.

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Connotation-

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The subjective meaning of a word; what a word suggests because of feelings or associations it evokes. Connotation is the subjective meaning of a word, what a word suggests because of feelings or associations it evokes. The connotative meaning is based on the context in which the word is used, how the meaning is expressed nonverbally (tone of voice, facial expression of the speaker, & so on), & the understanding of the person who is receiving it. The competent communicator can differentiate between denotative & connotative meanings & understands which is being used in a given situation. Connotative meanings may be generally accepted by most people, who use the language, by people within a particular group, or by an individual.

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Denotation-

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The objective meaning of a word; the standard dictionary definition. Denotation is the common meaning associated with a word—its standard dictionary definition. Denotative meanings are usually readily understood. Many people use words as if they had only a denotative or specific meaning, but this is not the case. Although commonly understood dictionary definitions (denotative meanings) do exist, when we communicate we usually use words connotatively.

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Do words contain meaning?

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We tend to associate language symbols (words) with specific meanings & to take that relationship for granted. But it is important to understand that, in fact, language by itself has no meaning.

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Semantics-

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The study of meaning, or the association of words with ideas, feelings, and contexts. If language did not have meaning, it would serve little or no purpose. Because words & word patterns can be used to exchange meanings between people, language is a useful tool for communication.

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Grammar-

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Rules that govern how words are put together to form phrases & sentences. As we join sounds together to form words & join words together to form phrases, sentences, & paragraphs, we use language's sound & grammar systems simultaneously. The ability to use sounds & grammar correctly is crucial to competent communication. Grammar enables us to make complete sentences & to understand sentences made by others. Just as language has rules that govern how sounds may be joined into words, it also has rules that govern how words may be joined into phrases & sentences. This set of rules is called grammar. For example, the English grammar system requires that singular nouns take singular verb forms & plural nouns take plural verb forms (friend is; friends are).

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Idioms-

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Words whose meanings cannot be understood according to ordinary usage.

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Word-

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A symbol that stands for the object or concept that it names. Words have meaning because communities & cultures give them meaning. Words are symbols that stand for objects & concepts. A word can represent an object or an abstract concept: The word desk represents an actual piece of furniture, an object, while the word anger represents a whole range of emotions associated with our feelings when we are extremely upset & unhappy.

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The elements of language

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Sounds, words, grammar, & meaning -Language, talk, speech, & communication are four different but related phenomena. Language, as noted earlier, is a structured system of signs, sounds, gestures, or marks (in other words, symbols) that allows people to express ideas & feelings to others; talk is what we do every day; speech is one vehicle used to transmit language; & communication involves the exchange of meanings. Dialects & other speech patterns can complicate communication between people who speak the same language.

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Style-switch-

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Is a term that identifies when people from co-cultures speak the language of their own culture but switch to that of the dominant culture when needed & appropriate. -Another communication scholar, Marsha Houston, reports that African American women & other out-groups style-switch, or move between "dominant culture" language & the language of their own co-culture, to successfully operate in both the dominant society & their own co-culture.

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Muted group theory-

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Suggests that under-represented groups (women, seniors, gays, blacks, Hispanics, etc.) are not as free or as able as men to say what the mean, when & where they wish. -Communication scholar Cheris Kramerae suggests that people who do not have the power of "correct or appropriate" language have little voice in their worlds. Her muted group theory suggests that status & power are clearly linked. Kramerae says that muted groups are often women & ethnic minorities or out-groups (people with disabilities, the elderly, & the poor).

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Language-

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A structured system of signs, sounds, gestures, or marks that is used & understood to express ideas & feelings among people within a community, nation, geographic areas, or cultural tradition. Language has the power to influence our perceptions of others (and theirs of us). It affects our emotions & allows us to make connections with others. Language helps us gain & maintain relationships with loved ones, family, friends, & others. Without language, little or no human communication as we know it would exist. Language allows us to encounter our world in significant ways because it enables us to share meaning with others. Language is a powerful tool. But it is only as effective & efficient as the people using it. Although we often believe that language is neutral, in actuality it communicates much about what we are & what we think; therefore, language is subjective & must be carefully used.

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