Full Class – Flashcards
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work becomes more efficient - easier than physical labor
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mechanical advantage
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Epithelial Tissue
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Continuous layer of cells separating fluids and vessels
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Exocrine Glands
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Epithelial glands which secrete product to external enviroment
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Endocrine Glands
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Epithelial glands which secrete hormones into the blood stream
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Apical and Basolateral
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Two distinct sides of the cell (Apical faces lumen; basolateral faces outside)
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Desmosomes
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Hold cells together under stress
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Catabolic Reaction
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Breaking down of larger molecules into smaller ones
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Anabolic Reaction
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Production of larger molecules
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Allosteric Regulation
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Activation/inhibition of enzyme by changing its shape
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Primary Transport
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Uses ATP to transport substances
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Secondary Transport
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Couples flow of one substance down its concentration gradient to another going up its gradient
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Paracrine
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Diffuses locally and acts on a neighboring cell
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Metabotropic receptors
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Receptors which function through a second messenger
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Posterior Pituitary
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Extension of neural tissue; produces vasopressin and oxytocin
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Anterior Pituitary
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Endocrine gland; prolactin and other hormones (ACTH)
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Vasopressin (ADH)
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regulates water balance in the body
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Oxytocin
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Milk, contractions, bonding (pregnancy stuff)
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Tropic Hormones
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Regulates release of other hormones
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Cortisol Pathway
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CRH (hypothalamus) stimulates anterior pituitary to produce ACTH; stimulates adrenal cortex to produce cortisol (steroid); which inhibits past pathways
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Addison's Disease
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Hypoglycemia caused by hyposecretion of cortisol
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Cushing's Syndrome
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Hyperglycemia and fatigue caused by hypersecretion of cortisol
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Insulin
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Released by beta cells in the pancreas; increases reuptake of glucose into cells
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Glucagon
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Released by alpha cells in the pancreas; stimulates breakdown of glycogen, lipids, and amino acids to produce glucose
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Temporal Summation
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Two postsynaptic graded potentials from one synapse in rapid succession can summate
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Spatial Summation
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Two postsynaptic graded potentials from nearby synapses around the same time can summate
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Glutamate
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Main excitatory neurotransmitter in CNS
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GABA
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Most common inhibitory neurotransmitter in CNS
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Afferent Neurons
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Send signals towards the CNS
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Efferent Neurons
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Send signals away from CNS
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Interneurons
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Process signals in CNS
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White Matter
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Clusters of myelinated axons in spinal cord
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Grey Matter
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Cell bodies and dendrites
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Ganglion
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Collection of cell bodies in periphery (i.e. in spinal cord)
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Nucleus
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A ganglion in the CNS
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Meninges
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Connective tissue membranes between outer bones and CNS
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Astrocytes
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Glia cells involved in the blood-brain barrier
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Brainstem
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Connects to spinal cord: Made up of Midbrain, Pons, and Medulla
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Midbrain
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Controls eye movement, sleep, etc.
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Pons
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Relay between cerebellum and cerebrum, etc.
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Medulla
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Controls blood pressure, breathing, etc.
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Cerebellum
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Involved in motor coordination and balance
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Forebrain
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Largest part of brain
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Diencephalon
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Under cortex, made up of Thalamus and Hypothalamus
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Thalamus
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Relay system for sensory info
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Hypothalamus
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Regulates homeostasis, links endocrine and neural systems
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Cerebrum
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Made up of Cerebral Cortex and Basal Ganglia
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Cerebral Cortex
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Outermost part of brain, divided into 4 lobes
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Frontal Lobe
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Reasoning, motor skills, language
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Parietal Lobe
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Kinesthetics, pain, somatosensory cortex
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Temporal Lobe
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Hearing, memory, speech
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Occipital Lobe
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Vision, colors, word recognition
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Limbic System
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Learning, memory formation, emotions
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Nociceptors
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Receptors involved with pain and discomfort
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Receptive Field
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Area over which a stimulus will produce a response in a specific neuron
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Gate-control Theory
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Touch and pain can interact in terms of reception
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Autonomic Nervous System
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Controls subconscious functions of the body
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Parasympathetic Nervous System
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Controls the body at rest (metabolism, etc)
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Sympathetic Nervous System
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Prepares body for stress; danger.
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Preganglionic Neuron
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Connect CNS to autonomic ganglion
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Postganglionic Neuron
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Connect to target tissue
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Sympathetic Chain
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Ganglia linked parallel to spinal cord; causes widespread sympathetic effect
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Vagus Nerve
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Contains most of the cranial preganglionic nerves
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ANS Sympathetic Neurotransmission
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ACh targets nicotinic receptors; followed by Norepinephrine binding adrenergic receptors
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ANS Parasympathetic Neurotransmission
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ACh targets nicotinic receptors; followed by ACh targetting muscarinic receptors
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Varicosities
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“boutons;” enlargements in axon where synapses connect to targets (motor end plate)
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Effect of Cocaine
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Blocks reuptake of Norepinephrine; continually triggers sympathetic systems
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Adrenal Medulla
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Sympathetic neuroendocrine tissue; “modified sympathetic ganglion”; secretes epinephrine
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Chromaffin Cells
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Secrete epinephrine into blood; causes general alarm signal
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Somatic Motor System
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Consciously controls skeletal muscle; only one neuron between system and muscle fibers
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Motor Unit
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Collection of a motor neuron plus all the associated muscle fibers
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Neuromuscular Junction
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Synapse between motor neuron and muscle fiber
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Curare
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Natural toxin native in South America; antagonist of ACh receptors
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Botulinum Toxin
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Cleaves a motor neuron protein involved in vesicle release; which paralyzes muscles
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Nerve Gases
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Inhibit acetylcholinesterase; i.e. sarin
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Reflex
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Automatic involuntary spinal cord action in response to a sensory stimulus; doesn't use brain
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Muscle Spindle
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Senses lengthening of muscle and sends signal to the spinal cord; may in turn (through SC) activate counteracting muscle
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Monosynaptic Reflex
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Muscle circuit involving only one synapse
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Patellar Stretch Reflex
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Patellar tendon is tapped; knee jerks automatically
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Skeletal Muscle Tissue
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Striated; attached to bones and controls movement (somatic peripheral system)
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Cardiac Muscle Tissue
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Striated; runs heart. Controlled by autonomic system and hormones
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Smooth Muscle Tissue
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Smooth; involved in organs/tubes/motion. Controlled by autonomic system and hormones.
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Tendons
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Connect muscles to bones. Made out of collagen
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Fascicles
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Bundles of muscle fibers
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Sarcolemma
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Muscle fiber membrane
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Sarcoplasm
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Muscle fiber cytoplasm
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Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
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Muscle fiber ER
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Sarcomere
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A unit of actin and myosin – actually contracts muscle fibers
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Myofibril
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A repeating arrangement of muscle fibers and proteins
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T-tubules
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Long tubes in sarcolemma; conducts action potential to center of muscle fiber
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Actin
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Remember – composed of two F-actin fibers wrapped around each other
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Inactivation of muscle
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Tropomyosin wraps around actin and prevents myosin binding; troponin positions tropomyosin – on or off, by situation
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Crossbridges
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Where myosin heads bind actin
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Sliding filament model
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Myosin heads walk along actin filaments; bringing sarcomere ends closer together
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Excitation-contraction coupling
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Motor neuron releases ACh onto muscle, opening Na channels and depolarizing muscle. AP travels down T-tubule into interior; causes Ca2+ channel opening in SR. Ca floods cytoplasm and activates troponin; allowing contraction
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Twitch
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When a muscle cell responds to a single AP
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Summation (muscular)
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Occurs if a muscle fiber is stimulated continually – Ca2+ won't be pumped back into SR
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Tetanus
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Muscle doesn't relax at all – sustained maximal contraction
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Recruitment
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As more motor units are recruited, the muscle will generate much larger force
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Muscle Fiber Types
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Slow Oxidative (Type I); Fast Oxidative (Type IIA); Fast Glycolytic (Type IIB)
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Type I Muscle Fiber
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Slow Oxidative – Red due to stored oxygen in myoglobin; small and fatigue resistant
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Type IIA Muscle Fiber
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Fast Oxidative – Red due to stored oxygen in myoglobin; medium sized and fatigues moderately
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Type IIB Muscle Fiber
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Fast Glycolytic – White due to lack of myoglobin; large and fatigues quickly
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Flexor
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Muscle responsible for bringing bones closer
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Extensor
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Muscle responsible for moving bones away from each other
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Proprioceptors
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Sensory neurons in muscle
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Golgi tendon organ
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Proprioceptor wrapped around connective tissue in tendon – helps protect from muscle tear/damage
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Portal System
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Dumps blood from one capillary directly into another without it being redistributed by the heart
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Diffusion
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Random movement of molecules in solution. Only effective over short distances
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Bulk Flow
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Circulatory system's transfer of blood to capillaries in tissues
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Diffusional Exchange
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Transfer of gases and nutrients in capillaries (short distances, large surface area)
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Pulmonary Circulation
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Carries blood to lungs to be oxygenated; brings this back to heart
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Systemic Circulation
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Carries oxygenated blood to other parts of the body, brings deoxygenated blood back
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Arteries
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Large branching vessels that conduct blood away from the heart; elastic smooth muscle can withstand high pressure
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Atherosclerosis
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Depositing of plaque in arteries; can lead to ruptures
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Veins
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Large converging vessels that conduct blood to the heart; then flexible walls leave resistance relatively low
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Arterioles
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Use variable pressure to control blood pressure (total flow remains the same)
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Blood flow, by vessel
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Heart > Arteries > Arterioles > Capillaries > Venules > Veins
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Series Arrangement
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Whole CV system. LH > systemic > RH > Pulmonary > LH
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Parallel Arrangement
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Both pulmonary and systemic circuits run in parallel branches; allows independent regulation
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Poisseuille's Law
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Flow is equal to the pressure difference divided by the resistance (NOT absolute P)
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Total Blood Flow
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5 L/min (both circuits)
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Resistance
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Dependent on viscosity, length, and radius; first two are ignored. Resistance is inversely proportional to radius
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Aorta
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Main artery, provides oxygenated blood to systemic circulation. Comes from left ventricle
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Systole
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Valves close, heart contracts and empties, generating pressure
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Diastole
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Valves open, heart relaxes and fills
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Cardiac Output
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Equal to stroke volume multiplied by heart beat rate (may increase up to 5x when exercising)
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Cardiac Muscle
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Mononucleated and branched with intercalated disks
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Gap Junctions
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Provide electrical continuity between cells
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Pacemaker cell
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Measures action potentials in order to measure heart contraction frequency
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Cardiac refractory period
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Extra long (almost as long as the twitch) which helps prevent tetanus
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Continual circulatory flow
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Arterial pressure from stretching is used to drive blood when ventricular pressure is zero
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Single-unit smooth muscle
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Gap junctions allow contraction as a single unit
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Multi-unit smooth muscle
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Fewer gap junctions; independent contractions allow precise control of multiple units
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Muscle contractions (Fastest > Slowest)
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Skeletal > Cardiac > Smooth
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Hypertension
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High blood pressure due to increased resistance; Heart must contract harder
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Effects of exercise
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CO is increased 4-fold, increasing pressure and thus a drop in resistance
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Capillary Sphincter
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When relaxed, allows nutrients/waste to travel between capillaries and tissue cells
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Fluid Capillary Transport
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Depends on osmotic pressure and blood pressure
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Lymphatic System
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Collects excess tissue fluid; returns it to blood in the veins
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Swollen feet, ankles or other body parts
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Caused by blocked lymphatics or circulation
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Distribution of blood by volume
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60% in veins, 15% in arteries, 12 in pulmonary blood vessels, 8% in heart, 5% in capillaries
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Skeletal Muscle Pump
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Valves which assure one-way flow from lower extremities to the heart
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Sympathetic Nerves
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Use (nor)/epinephrine to increase blood pressure, stroke volume, and cardiac output
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Parasympathetic Nerves
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Use acetylcholine to slow APs and heart rate; little effect on ventricle contractions
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Valsalva Maneuver
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(Anti-homeostasis) Forceful exhalation against a closed airway; reduces blood flow (veins/brain), CO
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Starling Curve
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Changes in end-diastolic volume (increased venous return) increases stroke volume
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Autonomic Arteriole Regulation
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Sympathetic nerves constrict most arterioles to increase blood flow to others
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Metabolic Arteriole Regulation
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Constricts or dilates arterioles to regulate metabolic activity (also capillaries)
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Circulatory Homeostasis
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During exercise, muscle/respiratory pumps increase venous return to maintain homeostasis
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Arterial Baroreceptors
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Detect changes in arterial pressure (through AP frequency) and send to CV control center
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HBR
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Heart Rate
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SV
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Stroke Volume
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CO
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Cardiac Output (HBR * SV)
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TPR
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Total Peripheral Resistance
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MAP
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Mean Arterial Pressure (CO * TPR)
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Fick's Law of Diffusion
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Flux of solute is proportional to Area * Concentration / Distance
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Bulk Flow
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Refers to the blood circulation and breathing; dependent on differences in pressure and vessel resistance
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Cystic Fibrosis
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Lack of a protein regulating mucus etc; leads to trouble breathing, digestive problems, sweat etc.
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Pleural sacs/fluid
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Attach lung to the chest wall; facilitating air flow in and out of lung
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Respiratory Inspiration
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Diaphragm contracts, ribs and chest (thoracic cavity) expand; drawing in air
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Respiratory Expiration
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Diaphragm relaxes; ribs and chest (thoracic cavity) contract; expelling air
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Pneumothorax
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Seal of chest cavity is broken; lungs aren't bound by pleural fluid so they gradually collapse
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Boyle's Law
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P1V1 = P2V2 (explains how air flows into and out of lungs)
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O2 Distribution
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About 20% is used, the rest is kept in storage (excess capacity)
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Pulmonary Capillaries
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Located in walls of alveoli; large alveolar surface area and thin membrane allow exchange within 1 second
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Pneumonia
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Excess fluid in alveoli increases distance and decreases diffusion; results in less O2 to blood and tissues
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Forces Opposing Muscle Work in Breathing
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Tissue resistance of chest wall; Airway resistance; compliance of lungs (?V/?P)
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Surface Tension
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Tension of water in alveoli increases work of breathing
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Surfactant
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Compound that lowers surface tension and pressure, making breathing easier (useful for babies/sick people)
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Hemoglobin
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Protein in red blood cells that binds and transports O2 (high affinity for CO => toxicity); 4 hemes and 4 globins each
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Hemoglobin effects on diffusion
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Hb-bound O2 is different from free O2, so bound O2 increases O2 release, vice versa and etc.
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Bicarbonate ion
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HCO3-, method of transporting CO2 in the plasma. Released by pancreas in response to acid from stomach
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S-shaped Hb Curve
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Allows maintenance of homeostatic O2 levels, despite acidity/temperature/etc. (increases binding)
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Red hands/extremities
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May be due to cold or CO poisoning; bound Hb is visibly red
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Hematocrit
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Percentage of RBC per blood volume; proportional to O2/CO2 capacity
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Erythropoietin (epo)
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Increases/involved in RBC production
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Blood Doping
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Transfusion of RBC or epo to increase hematocrit and thus O2 capacity
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Carbonic Anhydrase
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Catalyzes the reaction between CO2 and HCO3-; similar effects to Hb
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Functions of the Urinary System
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Regulate plasma composition; remove waste products/toxins from bloodstream
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Nitrogenous Wastes
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Ammonia (soluble, toxic); Uric acid (insoluble); Urea (soluble, non-toxic)
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Kidney Functions
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Filter blood, reabsorb nutrients and >99% of water; secrete and excrete toxins in urine
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Kidney Dialysis
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Removal of waste by diffusion equilibration across dialysis membrane
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Ureters
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Transport urine from kidneys to bladder
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Bladder
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Stores urine
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Urethra
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Excrete urine from bladder to outside of the body
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Nephron
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Functional unit of the kidney: Consists of Bowman's capsule, its associated tubules, and a loop of Henle
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Afferent Arteriole
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Carries blood to the glomerulus
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Efferent Arteriole
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Carries blood away from the glomerulus
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Renal Corpuscle
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The unit consisting of Bowman's capsule and glomerulus; first step of filtration
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Bowman's Capsule
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First step in filtration of blood to urine; contains glomerulus enclosed in a sac
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Glomerulus
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A cluster of capillaries that carry out the first step of filtration, filtrate passes through Bowman's to the DCT
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Proximal Convoluted Tubule (PCT)
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Reabsorbs all nutrients, most ions and water; some toxin secretion (all passive/obligatory)
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Loop of Henle
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Connects PCT to DCT; maintains osmotic pressure in the nephron
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Vasa Recta
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Straight capillaries that run parallel to the loop of Henle; allow reabsorption of ions and urea
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Distal Convoluted Tubule (DCT)
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Reabsorbs ions and water; secretes toxins, urea, and excess ions
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Aldosterone
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Regulates reabsorption of Na and Cl ions in the DCT
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Mechanism of Aldosterone
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Increases number of Na/K pumps on basolateral membrane; opens channels on apical membrane
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Production of Aldosterone
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JGA granular cells secrete renin ---> converts angiotensinogen to angiotensin > triggers aldosterone
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ADH
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Anti-diuretic hormone; regulates reabsorption of water by opening aquaporins in principal cells
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Regulation of ADH Release
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Increased osmolarity or reduced blood pressure/volume stimulate release from hypothalamus
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Collecting Duct
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Final step of kidney reabsorption/secretion; passes urine on to the ureter
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Renal Arteries
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Carry oxygenated blood to kidney where it is continually filtered; receives about 20% of CO at rest
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Peritubular Capillaries
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Blood vessels along nephrons; allow reabsorption and secretion using gradients
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Juxtaglomerular Apparatus (JGA)
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Regulates tubule and nephron functions
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Podocytes
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Located in outer layer of glomerulus; provide selectivity through filtration (retain plasma proteins and RBCs)
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Glomerular Filtration Forces
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Primarily capillary pressure (hydrostatic and osmotic); less so Bowman's capsule pressures
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Rate of Filtration (Bowman's)
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Highly regulated; can be significantly affected by small changes in glomerular capillary pressure
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Formula for Excretion
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Filtration - resabsorption + secretion
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Formula for Urine Volume
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Glomerular Filtration - reabsorption + secretion
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Water Distribution in the Body
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66%/33% split (28 liters in intracellular fluid; 14 liters in extracellular fluid)
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Hyper/Hyponatremia
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High/low plasma concentration of sodium ions
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Proportion of Sodium Reabsorption
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70% in PCT; 30% in DCT
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ACE Inhibitors
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Molecules that inhibit enzymes involved in the production of aldosterone; may reduce hypertension, etc.
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GI Pathway
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Mouth > Pharynx > Esophagus > Stomach > Small Intestine > Colon/Large Intestine > Rectum > Anus
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GI Motility
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Smooth muscle contractions in GI tract helps push the food from one end to another
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Layers of the GI Tract Wall
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Mucosa, Submucosa, Muscularis Externa, Serosa
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Mucosa
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Made up of epithelial cells and connective tissue
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Submucosa
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Made up of connective tissue, blood vessels, and elements of the enteric (intestinal) nervous system
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Muscularis Externa
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Made up of circular and longitudinal smooth muscle
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Serosa
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Made of solely connective tissue
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Accessory Glands of GI Tract
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Salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas
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Long vs Short Reflexes
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Long reflexes occur through CNS while short reflexes occur locally in the GI tract
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Cephalic Phase
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Mental stimuli through CNS; thoughts of food which stimulate production of saliva, acid, mucus, and pepsinogen
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Gastric Phase
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Stomach stimuli; food in stomach stimulates long&short reflexes involving gastrin, secretes acid and pepsinogen
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Intestinal Phase
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Small intestinal stimuli; fat and protein stimulate long/short reflexes with CCK and secretin, stimulate secretions
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Lysozyme
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Enzyme in saliva that destroys bacteria
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Salivary Amylase
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Enzyme in saliva that breaks down starch
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Secreting Cells in Gastric Pits
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Neck cells, chief cells, parietal cells, G cells
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Neck Cells
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Secrete mucus
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Chief Cells
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Secrete pepsinogen
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Parietal Cells
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Secrete acid
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G Cells
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Secrete gastrin into the bloodstream
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Acid Reflux (Heart Burn)
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Stomach acid flows backwards into esophagus due to weakness/relaxing of lower esophageal sphincter
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Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease (GERD)
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Frequent acid reflux; can be caused by obesity, pregnancy, smoking, medications
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Ulcers
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Erosions of GI tract lining; caused by acid/pepsin breaking down lining (can be caused by aspirin or infection)
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Chyme
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Partially digested food mixed with gastric juices (yum)
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Duodenum
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First portion of small intestine; where pancreatic enzymes and bile carry out most of digestion
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Villi
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Extensions which give the small intestine more surface area for absorption; each has capillaries and lacteals
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Lacteals
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Part of the lymphatic system; take up fat for reabsorption
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Enterocytes
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Epithelial cells of the small intestine; contains/covered by brush border
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Brush Border
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Microvilli that cover enterocytes, increase surface area to aid in absorption
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Secretin
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Triggered by HCl release; causes secretion of pancreatic bicarbonate
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Cholecystokinin (CCK)
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Triggered by proteins and fat in intestine; causes secretion of pancreatic enzymes
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Carbohydrate Transport
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Sugar transporters in the apical membrane of enterocytes use Na gradient to pump monomers into cell
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Zymogens
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Proteins/peptides are secreted as this inactive form (until the duodenum); i.e. trypsinogen or pepsinogen
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Trypsin
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Active form of protease which cleaves/activates zymogens
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Hepatic Portal Vein
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Bring amino acids and sugars to liver for detoxification on the way to the heart
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Bile
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Made by liver and stored in gallbladder; made of amphiphilic bile salts and other waste products to be eliminated
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Emulsification
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Bile helps break down fat globules into smaller droplets
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Gallstones
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Painful byproduct of excess cholesterol or insufficient bile
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Chylomicrons
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Packages of digested fatty acids; released via exocytosis and drained into blood through lacteals
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Foxglove Digitalis
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Blocks Na/K pump, causes increased urine excretion (too much can be fatal)
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Diabetes Mellitus
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Disease characterized by high blood sugar; often related to insulin problems
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Type I Diabetes
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Autoimmune; damage to beta cells causes low insulin lvels (5-10% of cases)
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Type II Diabetes
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Specific cells develop resistance to insulin (90-95% of cases); often related to obesity
