Discovering the Lifespan 2e Chapters 1-3 – Flashcards
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lifespan development
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the field of study that examines patterns of growth, change, and stability in behavior that occur throughout the entire life span
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physical development
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development involving the body's physical makeup, including the brain, nervous system, muscles, and senses, and the need for food, drink, and sleep
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cognitive development
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development involving the ways that growth and change in intellectual capabilities influence a person's behavior
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personality development
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development involving the ways that the enduring characteristics that differentiate one person from another change over the life span
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social development
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the way in which individuals' interactions with others and their social relationships grow, change, and remain stable over the course of life
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cohort
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a group of people born around the same time in the same place
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continuous change
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gradual development in which achievements at one level build on those of previous levels
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discontinuous change
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development that occurs in distinct steps or stages, with each stage bringing about behavior that is assumed to be qualitatively different from behavior at earlier stages
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critical period
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a specific time during development when a particular event has its greatest consequences and the presence of certain kinds of environmental stimuli are necessary for development to proceed normally
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sensitive period
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a point in development when organisms are particularly susceptible to certain kinds of stimuli in their environments, but the absence of those stimuli does not always produce irreversible consequences a specific, but limited, time, usually early in an organism's life, during which the organism is particularly susceptible to environmental influences relating to some particular facet of development
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maturation
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the predetermined unfolding of genetic information
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theories
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explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest, providing a framework for understanding the relationships among an organized set of facts and principles
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psychodynamic perspective
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the approach that states behavior is motivated by inner forces, memories, and conflicts that are generally beyond people's awareness and control
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psychoanalytic theory
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the theory proposed by Freud that suggests that unconscious forces act to determine personality and behavior
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psychosexual development
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according to Freud, a series of stages that children pass through in which pleasure, or gratification, is focused on a particular biological function and body part
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psychosocial development
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the approach that encompasses changes in our interactions with and understandings of one another, as well as in our knowledge and understanding of ourselves as members of society
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Watson's Behavioral perspective
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the approach that suggests that the keys to understanding development are observable behavior and outside stimuli in the environment
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classical conditioning
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a type of learning in which an organism responds in a particular way to a neutral stimulus that normally does not bring about that type of response
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operant conditioning
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a form of learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened by its association with positive or negative consequences
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behavior modification
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a formal technique for promoting the frequency of desirable behaviors and decreasing the incidence of unwanted ones
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social-cognitive learning theory
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learning by observing the behavior of another person, called a model
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cognitive perspective
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the approach that focuses on the processes that allow people to know, understand, and think about the world
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information processing approaches
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the model that seeks to identify the ways individuals take in, use, and store information
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cognitive neuroscience approach
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the approach that examines cognitive development through the lens of brain processes
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humanistic perspective
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the theory that contends that people have a natural capacity to make decisions about their lives and control their behavior
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contextual perspective
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the theory that considers the relationship between individuals and their physical, cognitive, personality, and social worlds
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Bronfenbrenner's Bioecological approach
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the perspective suggesting that levels of the environment simultaneously influence individuals
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Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory
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the approach that emphasizes how cognitive development proceeds as a result of social interactions between members of a culture
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evolutionary perspective
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the theory that seeks to identify behavior that is a result of our genetic inheritance from our ancestors
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scientific method
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the process of posing and answering questions using careful, controlled techniques that include systematic, orderly observation and the collection of data
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theories
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broad explanations, and predictions about phenomena of interest
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hypothesis
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a prediction stated in a way that permits it to be tested
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correlational research
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research that seeks to identify whether an association or relationship between two factors exists
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environmental research
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research designed to discover casual relationships between various factors
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naturalistic observation
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a type of correlational study in which some naturally occurring behavior is observed without intervention in the situation
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case studies
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studies that involve extensive, in-depth interviews with a particular individual or small group of individuals
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survey research
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a type of study where a group of people chosen to represent some larger populations are asked questions about their attitudes, behavior, or thinking on a given topic
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psychophysiological methods
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research that focuses on the relationship between physiological processes and behavior
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experiment
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a process in which an investigator, called an experimenter, devises two different experiences for participants
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independent variable
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the variable that researchers manipulate in an experiment
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dependent variable
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the variable that researchers measure to see if it changes as a result of the experimental manipulation
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sample
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the group of participants chosen for the experiment
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field study
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a research investigation carried out in a naturally occurring setting
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laboratory study
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a research investigation conducted in a controlled setting explicitly designed to hold events constant
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theoretical research
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research designed specifically to test some developmental explanation and expand scientific knowledge
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applied research
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research meant to provide practical solutions to immediate provlems
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longitudinal research
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research in which the behavior of one or more [artici[ants in a study is measured as they age
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cross-sectional research
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research in which researchers examine a number of different age groups over several points in time
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zygote
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the new cell formed by the process of fertilization
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genes
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the basic unit of genetic information
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DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) molecules
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the substance that genes are composed of that determines the nature of every cell in the body and how it will function
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chromosomes
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rod-shaped portions of DNA that are organized in 23 pairs
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monozygotic twins
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twins who are genetically identical
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dizygotic twins
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twins who are produced when two separate ova are fertilized by two separate sperm at roughly the same time
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dominant trait
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the one trait that is expressed when two competing traits are present
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recessive trait
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a trait within an organism that is present, but is not expressed
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genotype
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the underlying combination of genetic material present (but not outwardly visible) in an organizm
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phenotype
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an observable trait; the trait that is actually seen
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homozygous
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inheriting from parents similar genes for a given trait
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heterozygous
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inheriting from parents different forms of a gene for a given trait
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polygenic inheritance
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inheritance in which a combinations of multiple gene pairs is responsible for the production of a particular trait
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X-linked genes
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genes that are considered recessive and located only on the X chromosome
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behavioral genetics
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the study of the effects of heredity on behavior
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Down syndrome
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a disorder produced by the presence of an extra chromosome on the 21st pair; once referred to as mongolism
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fragile X syndrome
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a disorder produced by injury to a gene on the X chromosome, producing mile to moderate mental retardation
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sickle-cell anemia
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a blood disorder that gets its name from the shape of the red blood cells in those who have it
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Tay-Sachs disease
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a disorder that produces blindness and muscle degeneration prior to death; there is no treatment
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Klinefelter's syndrome
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a disorder resulting from the presence of an extra X chromosome that produces underdeveloped genitals, extreme height, and enlarged breasts
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genetic counseling
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the discipline that focuses of helping people deal with issues relating to inherited disorders
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ultrasound sonography
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a process in which high-frequency sound waves scan the mother's womb to produce an image of the unborn baby, whose size and shape can then be assessed
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chorionic villus sampling (CVS)
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a test used to find genetic defects that involves taking samples of hairlike material that surrounds the embryo
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amniocentesis
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the process of identifying genetic defects by examining a small sample of fetal cells drawn by a needle inserted into the amniotic fluid surrounding the unborn fetus
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temperament
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patterns of arousal and emotionality that represent consistent and enduring characteristics in an individual
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multifactoral transmission
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the determination of traits by a combination of both genetic and environmental factors in which a genotype provides a range within which a phenotype may be expressed
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fertilization
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the process by which a sperm and an ovum-the male and female gametes, respectively-join to form a single new cell
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germinal stage
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the first-and shortest-stage of the prenatal period, which takes place during the first 2 weeks following conception
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placenta
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a conduit between the mother and fetus, providing nourishment and oxygen via the umbilical cord
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embryonic stage
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the period from 2 to 8 weeks following fertilization during which significant growth occurs in the major organs and body systems
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fetal stage
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the stage that begins at about 8 weeks after conception and continues until birth
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fetus
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a developing child, from 8 weeks after conception until birth
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infertility
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the inability to conceive after 12 to 18 months of trying to become pregnant
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artificial insemination
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a process of fertilization in which a man's sperm is placed directly into a woman's reproductive tract by a physician
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in vitro fertilization (IVF)
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a procedure in which a woman's ova are removed from her ovaries, and a man's sperm are used to fertilize the ova in a laboratory
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teratogen
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a factor that produces a birth defect
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fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
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a disorder caused by the pregnant mother consuming substantial quantities of alcohol during pregnancy, potentially resulting in mental retardation and delayed growth in the child
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fetal alcohol effects (FAE)
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a condition in which children display some, although not all, of the problems of fetal alcohol syndrome due to the mother's consumption of alcohol during pregnancy
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neonates
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the term used for newborns
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episiotomy
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an incision sometimes made to increase the size of the opening of the vagina to allow the baby to pass
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Apgar scale
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a standard measurement system that looks for a variety of indications of good health in newborns
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anoxia
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a restriction of oxygen to the baby, lasting a few minutes during the birth process, which can produce cognitive defects
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bonding
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close physical and emotional contact between parent and child during the period immediately following birth
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preterm infants
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infants who are born prior to 38 weeks after conception (also known as premature infants)
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low-birthweight infants
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infants who weigh less that 2,5000 grams (around 5 1/2 pounds) at birth
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small-for-gestational-age infants
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infants who, because of delayed fetal growth, weigh 90 percent (or less) of the average weight of infants of the same gestational age
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very-low-birthweight infants
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infants who weigh less than 1,250 grams (around 2.25 pounds) or, regardless of weight, have been in the womb less than 30 weeks
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postmature infants
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infants still unborn 2 weeks after the mother's due date
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cesarean delivery (c-section)
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a birth in which the baby is surgically removed from the uterus, rather than traveling through the birth canal
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fetal monitor
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a device that measures the baby's heartbeat during labor
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stillbirth
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the delivery of a child who is not alive, occurring in fewer than 1 delivery in 100
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infant mortality
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death within the first year of life
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reflexes
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unlearned, organized involuntary responses that occur automatically in the presence of certain stimuli
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habituation
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the decrease in the response to a stimulus that occurs after repeated presentations of the same stimuli
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states of arousal
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different degrees of sleep and wakefulness through which newborns cycle, ranging from deep sleep to great agitation
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cephalocaudal principle
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the principle that growth follows a pattern that begins with the head and upper body parts and then proceeds down to the rest of the body
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proximodistal principle
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the principle that development proceeds from the center of the body outward
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principle of hierarchical integration
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the principle that simple skills typically develop separately and independently but are later integrated into more complex skills
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principle of the independence of systems
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the principle that different body systems grow at different rates
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neuron
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the basic nerve cell of the nervous system
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synapse
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the gap at the connection between neurons, through which neurons chemically communicate with one another
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synaptic pruning
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the elimination of neurons as the result of non-use of lack of stimulation
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myelin
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a fatty substance that helps insulate neurons and speeds the transmission of nerve impulses
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cerebral cortex
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the upper layer of the brain
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plasticity
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the degree to which a developing structure of behavior is modifiable due to experience
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rhythms
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repetetive, cyclical patterns of behavior
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state
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the degree of awareness an infant displays to both internal and external stimulation
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rapid eye movement (REM) sleep
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the period of sleep that is found in older children and adults and is associated with dreaming
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sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)
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the unexplained death of a seemingly healthy baby
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norms
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the average performance of a large sample of children of a given age
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Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale (NBAS)
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a measure designed to determine infants' neurological and behavioral responses to their environment
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nonorganic failure to thrive
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a disorder in which infants stop growing due to a lack of stimulation and attention as the result of inadequate parenting
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sensation
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the physical stimulation of the sense organs
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perception
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the sorting out, interpretation, analysis, and integration of stimuli involving the sense organs and brain
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multimodal approach to perception
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the approach that considers how information that is collected by various individual sensory systems is integrated and coordinated
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affordances
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the action possibilities that a given situation or stimulus provides
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scheme
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an organized pattern of functioning that adapt and change with mental functioning
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assimilation
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the process in which people understand an experience in terms of their current stage of cognitive development and way of thinking
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accommodation
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changes in existing ways of thinking that occur in response to encounters with new stimuli or events
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sensorimotor stage (of cognitive development)
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Piaget's initial major stage of cognitive development, which can be broken down into six substages
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object permanence
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the realization that people and objects exist even when they cannot be seen
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information processing approaches
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the model that seeks to identify the way that individuals take in, use, and store information
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memory
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the process by which information is initially recorded, stored, and retrieved
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infantile amnesia
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the lack of memory for experiences that occurred prior to 3 years of age
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developmental quotient
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an overall developmental score that related to performance in four domains: motor skills, language use, adaptive behavior, and personal-social
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Bayley Scales of Infant Development
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a measure that evaluates an infants development from 2 to 42 months
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language
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the systematic, meaningful arrangement of symbols, which provides the basis for communication
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babbling
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making speechlike but meaningless sounds
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holophrases
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one-word utterances that stand for a whole phrase, the meaning of which depends of the particular context in which they are used
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telegraphic speech
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speech in which words not critical to the message are left out
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underextension
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the overly restrictive use of words, common among children just mastering spoken language
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overextension
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the overly broad use of words, overgeneralizing their meaning
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referential style
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a style of language use in which language is used primarily to label objects
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expressive style
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a style of language use in which language is used primarily to express feelings and needs about oneself and others
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learning theory approach
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the theory that language acquisition follows the basic laws of reinforcement and conditioning
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nativist approach
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the theory that a genetically determined, innate mechanism directs language development
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universal grammar
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Noam Chomsky's theory that all the world's languages share a similar underlying structure
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language-acquisition device (LAD)
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a neural system of the brain hypothesized to permit understanding of language
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infant-directed speech
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a type of speech directed toward infants, characterized by short, simple sentences
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stranger anxiety
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the caution and wariness displayed by infants when encountering an unfamiliar person
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separation anxiety
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the distress displayed by infants when a customary car provider departs
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social referencing
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the intentional search for information about others' feelings to help explain the meaning of uncertain circumstances and events
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self-awareness
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knowledge of oneself
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theory of mind
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knowledge and beliefs about how the mind works and how it affects behavior
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empathy
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an emotional response that corresponds to the feelings of another person
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attachment
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the positive emotional bond that develops between a child and a particular individual
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Ainsworth Strange Situation
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a sequence of staged episodes that illustrate the strength of attachment between a child and (typically) his or her mother
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secure attachment pattern
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a style of attachment in which children use the mother as a kind of home base and are at ease when she is present; when she leaves, they become upset and go to her as soon as she returns
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avoidant attachment pattern
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a style of attachment in which children do not seek proximity to the mother; after the mother has left, they seem to avoid her when she returns as if they are angered by her behavior
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ambivilent attachment pattern
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a style of attachment in which children display a combination of positive and negative reactions to their mothers; they show great distress when the mother leaves, but upon her return they may simultaneously seek close contact but also hit and kick her
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disorganized-disoriented attachment pattern
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a style of attachment in which children show inconsistent, often contradictory behavior, such as approaching the mother when when returns but not looking at her; they may be the least securely attached children of all
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personality
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the sum total of the enduring characteristics that differentiate one individual from another
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Erikson's theory of psychosocial development
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the theory that considers how individuals come to understand themselves and the meaning of others'-and their own-behavior
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trust-versus-mistrust stage
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according to Erikson, the period during which infants develop a sense of trust or mistrust, largely depending on how well their needs are met by their caregivers
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autonomy-versus-shame-and-doubt stage
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the period during which, according to Erikson, toddlers (aged 18 months to 3 years) develop independence and autonomy if they are allowed the freedom to explore, or shame and self-doubt if they are restricted and overprotected
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temperament
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patterns of arousal and emotionality that are consistent and enduring characteristics of an individual
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easy babies
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babies who have a positive disposition; their body functions operate regularly, and they are adaptive
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difficult babies
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babies who have negative moods and are slow to adapt to new situations; when confronted with a new situation they tend to withdraw
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slow-to-warm babies
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babies who are inactive, showing relatively calm reactions to their environment; their moods are generally negative, and they withdraw from new situations, adapting slowly
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goodness-of-fit
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the notion that development is dependent on the degree of match between children's temperament and the nature and demands of the environment in which they are being raised
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gender
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the sense of being male or female
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The Four Principles of Growth
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1. cephalocaudal principle - growth from head to rest of body 2. proximodistal principle - growth from center of body outward 3. principle of hierarchical integration - skills develop separately and independently 4. principle of the independence of systems - different body systems grow at different rates
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Four stages of Piaget's Theory
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1. sensorimotor - initial stage 2. preoperational - age 2 to 7, symbolic thinking grows, mental reasoning emerges 3. concrete operational-age 7 to 12, active appropriate use of logic 4. formal operational-stage when people develop ability to think abstractly
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Six Substages of the Sensorimotor Stage
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1. Simple Reflexes - birth to 1 month 2. First Habits and primary circular reactions - age 1 month to 4 months 3. Secondary circular reactions -a ge 4 months to 8 months 4. Coordination of secondary circular reactions - age 8 months to 12 months 5. Tertiary circular reactions - age 12 months to 18 months 6. Beginnings of thought - age 18 months to 2 years
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Three Approaches to Lifespan development
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1. Physical development - how the physical body affects behavior 2. Cognitive development - memory, problem solving, intelligence 3. Personality and social development - characteristics that differentiate one person from another, how interactions and relationships change
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Four issues in the field of lifespan development
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1. continuous change - gradual development building on previous levels 2. discontinuous change - steps or stages of development 3. critical period - a specific time when an event has its greatest consequences 4. sensitive period - a point when particularly susceptible to certain kinds of stimuli
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Freud's stages of Psychosexual Development
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1. Oral - interest in oral gratification from sucking, eating, mouthing, biting (Birth to 12-18 mo) 2. Anal - gratification from expelling or withholding feces; coming to terms with society's controls relating to toilet training (12-18 mo to 3 yrs) 3. Phallic - Interest in the genitals; coming to terms with Oedipal conflict, leading to identification with same sex parent (3 yrs to 5-6 yrs) 4. Latency - sexual concerns largely unimportant (5-6 yrs to adolescence) 5. Genital - reemergence of sexual interests and establishment of mature sexual relationships (adolescence to adulthood)
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Erikson's stages of Psychosocial Development
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1. Trust vs. (Birth to 12-18 mo) 2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (12-18 mo to 3 yrs) 3. Initiative vs. Guilt (3 yrs to 5-6 yrs) 4. Industry vs. Inferiority (5-6 yrs to adolescence) 5. Identity vs. Role Diffusion (adolescence to adulthood) 6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (early adulthood) 7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (middle adulthood) 8. Ego-integrity vs. Despair (late adulthood)
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Five Levels of Bronfenbrenner's Bioecological Approach
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1. microsystem - everyday, immediate environment (homes, caregivers, friends) 2. mesosystem - connects the various aspects of the microsystem 3. exosystem - represents broader influences (local government, community, schools) 4. macrosystem - larger cultural influences (society in general, types of governments, religious and political value systems) 5. chronosystem - underlies each of the previous systems (the way passage of time, historical events, and historical changes affect development)
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Three most frequently used psychophysiological measures
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1. Electroencephalogram (EEG) - electrodes placed on the skull to record activity in the brain 2. Computerized axial tomography (CAT) scan - a computer constructs an image of the brain by combining thousands of individual x-rays taken at slightly different angles 3. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scan - a detailed three- computer-generated image of brain activity by aiming a powerful magnetic field at the brain
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Three major research strategies
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1. longitudinal research - the behavior of one or more participants in a study is measured as they age 2. cross-sectional research - people of different ages are compared at the same point in time 3.sequential research - researchers examine a number of different age groups over several points in time
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Three stages of the Prenatal Period
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1. Germinal Stage (fertilization to 2 weeks) 2. Embryonic Stage (2 weeks to 8 weeks) 3. Fetal Stage (8 weeks to birth)
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What does Apgar stand for in the Apgar Scale?
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A - Appearance P - Pulse G - Grimace A - Activity R - Respiration
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Stages of Labor
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First stage - (longest stage) contractions and dilation of cervix Second stage - baby's head moves through the birth canal, baby is born Third stage- umbilical cord and placenta are expelled from the mother
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Fundamentals of Language
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1. Phonology - basic sounds of language, combined to form words and sentences 2. Morphemes - smallest language unit that has meaning (prefixes, suffixes) 3. Semantics - rules governing words and sentences
