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Learning

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a relatively permanent change in behavior acquired through experience.

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Classical Conditioning

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The process of learning by which a previously neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response identical or similar to one that was originally elicited by another stimulus as the result of the pairing or association of the two stimuli.

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Unconditioned Response (UR)

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An unlearned response to a stimulus.

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Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

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A stimulus that elicits an unlearned response.

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Neutral Stimulus (NS)

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A stimulus that before conditioning does not produce a particular response.

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Conditioned Response (CR)

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An acquired or learned response to a conditioned stimulus.

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Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

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A previously neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a conditioned response after it has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus.

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Extinction

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The gradual weakening and eventual disappearance of a conditioned response.

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Spontaneous Recovery

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The spontaneous return of a conditioned response following extinction.

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Reconditioning

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The process of relearning a conditioned response following extinction.

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Stimulus Generalization

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The tendency for stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response.

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Stimulus Discrimination

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The tendency to differentiate among stimuli that are related to the original conditioned stimulus, but not identical to it, fail to elicit a conditioned response.

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Conditioned Emotional Reaction (CER)

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An emotional response to a particular stimulus acquired through classical conditioning.

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Phobias

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Excessive fears of particular objects or situations.

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Behavior Therapy

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A form of therapy that involves the systematic application of the principles of learning.

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Conditioned Taste Aversions

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Aversions to particular tastes acquired through classical conditioning.

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Immune System

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The body's system of defense against disease.

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Law Of Effect

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Thorndike's principle that responses that have satisfying effects are more likely to recur, whereas those that have unpleasant effects are less likely to recur.

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Radical Behaviorism

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The philosophical position that free will is an illusion or myth and that human and animal behavior is completely determined by environmental and genetic influences.

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Skinner Box

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An experimental apparatus developed by B.F. Skinner for studying relationships between reinforcement and behavior.

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Operant Conditioning

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The process of learning in which the consequences of a response determine that probability that the response will be repeated.

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Operant Response

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A response that operates on the environment to produce certain consequences.

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Reinforcer

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A stimulus or event that increases the probability that the response it follows will be repeated.

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Superstitious Behavior

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In Skinner's view,behavior acquired through coincidental association of a response and a reinforcement.

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Positive Reinforcement

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The strengthening of a response through the introduction of a stimulus after the response occurs.

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Negative Reinforcement

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the strengthening of a response through the removal of a stimulus after the response occurs.

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Primary Reinforcers

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Reinforcers, such as food or sexual stimulation, that are naturally rewarding because they satisfy basic biological needs or drives.

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Secondary Reinforcers

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Learned reinforcers, such as money , that develop their reinforcing properties because of their association with primary reinforcers.

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Discriminative Stimulus

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A cue that signals that reinforcement is available if the subject makes a particular response.

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Shaping

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A process of learning that involves the reinforcement of increasingly closer approximations of the desired response.

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Schedules Of Reinforcement

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Predetermined plans for timing the delivery of reinforcement.

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Schedule Of Continuous Reinforcement

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A system of dispensing a reinforcement each time a response is produced.

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Schedule Of Partial Reinforcement

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A system of reinforcement in which only a portion of responses is reinforced.

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Escape Learning

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The learning of behaviors that allow an organism, to escape from an aversive stimulus.

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Avoidance Learning

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The learning of behaviors that allow an organism to avoid an aversive stimulus.

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Punishment

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The introduction of an aversive stimulus or the removal of a reinforcing stimulus after a response occurs, which leads to the weakening or suppression of the response.

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Behavior Modification (B-mod)

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The systematic application of learning principles to strengthen adaptive behavior and weaken maladaptive behavior.

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Token Economy Program

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A form of behavior modification in which tokens earned for performed desired behaviors can be exchanged for positive reinforcers.

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Programmed Instruction

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A learning method in which complex material is broken down into a series of small steps that learners master at their own pace.

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Computer-assisted Instruction

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A form of programmed instruction in which a computer is used to guide a student through a series of increasingly difficult questions.

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Cognitive Learning

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Learning that occurs without the opportunity of first performing the learned response or being reinforced for it.

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Insight Learning

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The process of mentally working through a problem until the sudden realization of a solution occurs.

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Latent Learning

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Learning that occurs without apparent reinforcement and that is not displayed until reinforcement and that is not displayed until reinforcement is provided.

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Cognitive Map

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A mental representation of an area that helps an organism navigate its way from one point to another.

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Observational Learning

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Learning by observing and imitating the behavior of others (also called vicarious learning or modeling).

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Memory

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The system that allows us to retain information and bring it to mind.

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Memory Encoding

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The process of converting information into a form that can be stored in memory.

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Memory Storage

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The process of retaining information in memory.

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Memory Retrieval

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The process of accessing and bringing into consciousness information stored in memory.

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Retrieval Cues

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Cues associated with the original learning that facilitate the retrieval of memories.

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Three-Stage Model

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A model of memory that posits three distinct stages of memory: sensory memory, short term memory, and long-term memory.

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Sensory Memory

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The storage system that holds memory of sensory impression for a very short time.

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Sensory Register

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A temporary storage device for holding sensory memories.

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Iconic Memory

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A sensory store for holding a mental representation of a visual image for a fraction of a second.

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Eidetic Imagery

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A lingering mental representation of a visual image (commonly called photographic memory).

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Echoic Memory

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A sensory store for holding a mental representation of a sound for a few seconds after it registers in the ears.

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Short-Term Memory (STM)

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The memory subsystem that allows for retention and processing of newly acquired information for a maximum of about 30 seconds (also called working memory).

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Chunking

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The process of enhancing retention of a large amount of information by breaking it down into smaller, more easily recalled chunks.

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Maintenance Rehearsal

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The process of extending retention of information held in short-term memory by consciously repeating the information.

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Long -Term Memory (LTM)

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The memory subsystem responsible for long-term storage of information.

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Consolidation

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The process of converting short-term memories into long-term memories.

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Elaborative Rehearsal

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The process of transferring information from short-term to long-term memory by consciously focusing on the meaning of the information.

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Semantic Network Model

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A representation of the organizational structure of long-term memory in terms of a network of associated concepts.

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Levels-of-Processing Theory

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The belief that how well or how long information is remembered depends on the depth of encoding or processing.

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Declarative Memory

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Memory of facts and personal information that requires a conscious effort to bring to mind (also called explicit memory).

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Semantic Memory

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Memory of facts and general information about the world.

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Episodic Memory

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Memory of personal experiences.

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Retrospective Memory

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Memory of past experiences or events and previously acquired information.

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Prospective Memory

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Memory of things one plans to do in the future.

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Procedural Memory

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Memory of how to do things that require motor or performance skills.

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Implicit Memory

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Memory accessed without conscious effort.

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Explicit Memory

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Memory accessed through conscious effort.

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Constructionist Theory

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A theory that holds that memory is not a replica of the past but a representation ,or reconstruction, of the past.

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Flashbulb Memories

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Enduring memories of emotionally charged events that seem permanently seared into the brain.

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Misinformation Effect

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A form of memory distortion that affects eyewitness testimony and that is caused by misinformation provided during the retention interval.

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Decay Theory

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A theory of forgetting that posits that memories consist of traces laid down in the brain that gradually deteriorate and fade away over time (also called trace theory).

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Savings Method

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A method of testing memory retention by comparing the numbers of trails needed to learn material with the number of trials needed to relearn the material at a later time.

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Masses Vs. Spaced Practice Effect

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The tendency for retention of learned material to be greater with spaced practice than with massed practice.

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Interference Theory

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The belief that forgetting is the result of interference of memories with each other.

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Retroactive Interference

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A form of interference in which newly acquired information interferes with retention of material learned earlier.

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Proactive Interference

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A form of interference in which material learned earlier interferes with retention of newly acquired information.

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Overlearning

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Practice repeated beyond the point necessary to reproduce material without error.

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Serial Position Effect

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The tendency to recall items at the start or end of a list better than items in the middle of a list.

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Primary Effect

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The tendency to recall items better when they are learned first.

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Recency Effect

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The tendency to recall items better when they are learned last.

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Retrieval Theory

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The belief that forgetting is the result of a failure to access stored memories.

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Tip-of-the-Tongue (TOT)

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An experience in which people are sure they know something but can't seem to bring it to mind.

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Repression

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In Freudian theory, a type of defense mechanism involving motivated forgetting of anxiety-evoking material.

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Free Recall

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A type of recall task in which individuals are asked to recall as many stored items as possible in any order.

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Recognition Task

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A method of measuring memory retention that assesses the ability to select the correct answer from among a range of alternative answers.

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Amnesia

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Loss of memory.

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Retrograde Amnesia

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Loss of memory of past events.

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Anterograde Amnesia

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Loss or impairment of the ability to form or store new memories.

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Dissociative Amnesia

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A psychologically based form of amnesia involving the "splitting off" from memory of traumatic or troubling experiences.

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Engram

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Lashley's term for the physical trace or etching of a memory in the brain.

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Neuronal Networks

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Memory circuits in the brain that consist of complicated networks of nerve cells.

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Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

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The long-term strengthening of neural connections as the result of repeated stimulation.

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Mnemonic

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A device for improving memory.

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Acronym

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A word composed of the first letters of a series of words.

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Acrostic

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A verse or saying in which the first or last letter of each word stands for something else.

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Cognitive Psychology

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The branch of psychology that focuses on such mental processes as thinking,problem solving, decision making, and use of language.

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Thinking

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The process of mentally representing and manipulating information.

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Mental Image

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A mental picture or representation of an object or event.

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Concepts

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Mental categories for classifying events, objects, and ideas on the basis of their common features or properties.

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Logical Concepts

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Concepts with clearly defined rules for membership.

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Natural Concepts

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Concepts with poorly defined or fuzzy rules for membership.

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Problem Solving

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A form of thinking focused on finding a solution to a particular problem.

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Algorithm

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A step-by-step set rules that will always lead to a correct solution to a problem.

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Heuistic

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A rule of thumb for solving problems or making judgments or decisions.

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Mental Set

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The tendency to rely on strategies that worked in similar situations in the past but that may not be appropriate to the present situation.

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Functional Fixedness

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The tendency to perceive objects as limited to the customary functions they serve.

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Decision Making

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A form of problem solving in which we must select a course of action from among the available alternatives.

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Confirmation Bias

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The tendency to maintain allegiance to an initial hypothesis despite strong evidence to the contrary.

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Representativeness Heuristic

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A rule of thumb for making a judgement that assumes a given sample is representative of the larger population from which it is drawn.

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Availability Heuristic

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The tendency to judge events as more likely to occur when information pertaining to them comes readily to mind.

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Creativity

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Originality of thought associated with the development of new, workable products or solutions to problems.

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Divergent Thinking

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The ability to conceive of new ways of viewing situations and new uses for familiar objects.

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Convergent Thinking

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The attempt to narrow down a range of alternatives to converge on the one correct answer to a problem.

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Conceptual Combinations

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Combinations of two or more concepts into one concept,resulting in the creation of a novel idea or application.

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Conceptual Expansion

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Expanding familiar concepts by applying them to new uses.

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Language

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A system of communication composed of symbols (words,hand signs, etc) that are arranged according to a set of rules (grammar) to form meaningful expressions.

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Grammar

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The set of rules governing how symbols in a given language are used to form meaningful expression.

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Phonemes

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The basic units of sound in a language.

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Morphemes

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The smallest units of meaning in a language.

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Syntax

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The rules of grammar that determine how words are ordered within sentences or phrases to form meaningful expressions.

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Semantics

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The set of rules governing the meaning of words.

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Language Acquisition Device

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Chomsky's concept of an innate,prewired mechanism in the brain that allows children to acquire language naturally.

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Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis

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The proposition that the language we use determines how we think and how we perceive the world (also called the Whorfian hypothesis).

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Intelligence

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The capacity to think and reason clearly and to act purposefully and effectively in adapting to the environment and pursuing one's goals.

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Mental Age

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A representation of a person's intelligence based on the age of people who are capable of performing at the same level of ability.

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Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

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A measure of intelligence based on performance on tests of mental abilities , expressed as a ratio between one's mental age and chronological age or derived from the deviation of one's scores from the norms for those of one's age group.

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Norms

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The standards used to compare an individuals performance on a test with the performance of others.

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Standardization

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The process of establishing norms for a test by administering the test to large numbers of people who constitute a standardization sample.

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Reliability

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The stability of test scores over time.

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Validity

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The degree to which a test measures what it purports to measure.

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Culture-Fair Tests

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Tests designed to eliminate cultural bias.

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Dyslexia

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A learning disability characterized by impaired ability to read.

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Mental Retardation

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A generalized deficit or impairment in intellectual and social skills.

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Mainstreaming

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The practice of placing children with special needs in a regular classroom environment.

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Primary Mental Abilities

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Seven basic mental abilities that Thurstone believed constitute intelligence.

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Multiple Intelligences

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Gardner's term for the distinct types of intelligence that characterize different forms of intelligent behavior.

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Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

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Sternberg's theory of intelligence that posits three aspects of intelligence: analytic, creative and practical.

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Heritability

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The degree to which heredity accounts for variations on a given trait within a population.

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Brainstorming

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A method of promoting divergent thinking by encouraging people to propose as many solutions to a problem as possible without fear of being judged negatively by others, no matter how far-fetched their proposals may be.

General Psychology (Chapter 5-7) – Flashcards

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