question

Conciousness

answer

* Waking Consciousness - State in which thoughts, feelings, and sensations are clear, organized, and the person feels alert. * Altered State of Consciousness - State in which there is a shift in the quality or pattern of mental activity as compared to waking consciousness. * your awareness of everything that is going on around and inside your own head @ any given moment, which you use to organize your behavior, including thoughts, sensations, and feelings.

question

States of Consciousness

answer

* Focused Awareness * Drifting Consciousness * Divided Consciousness * Unconsciousness * Altered States of Conciousness

question

Focused Awareness

answer

* High levels of attention and alertness

question

Drifting Consciousness

answer

* Variable attention; Daydreaming

question

Divided Consciousness

answer

* Split Attention

question

Unconsciousness

answer

* Sleeping & Dreaming * Deep Unconsciousness

question

Altered States of Conciousness

answer

* Drugs, Alcohol

question

How do carcadian (biological) rhythms influence consciousness?

answer

(Sleep-Wake Cycle) for most people, this means that they will experience several hours of sleep at least once during every 24-hour period. Controlled by the brain, specifically by an area within the hypothalamus

question

Hypothalamus regards to sleep

answer

The sleep-wake cycle is ultimately controlled by the brain specifically by by an area within the Hypothalamus (tiny section of the brain that influences the glandular system.

question

Suprachiasmic Nucleus (SCN) regards to sleep

answer

* Structure deep within the Hypothalamus which influences the release of Melatonin. * Internal clock that tells people when to wake up and when to fall asleep. * Sensitive to changes in light. As daylight fades, the SCN tells the pineal gland (located in the base of the brain) to screte Melatonin (as it accumulates, a person will feel sleepy. As the light coming into the eyes increases , the SCN tells the pineal gland to stop secreting melatonin, allowing the body to awaken.

question

Melatonin

answer

* a hormone secreted by the brain that contributes to sleepiness. * More of it, means sleepier... Less of it, means, more awake/alert.

question

Microsleeps

answer

brief sidesteps into sleep lasting only a few seconds.

question

Reasons/theories why people need to sleep

answer

* Protectoin (Adaptive Theory) * Energy Conservation * Restoration (serves to replenish chemicals and repair cellular damage) * Consolidate newly learned information into lasting memories. * May bolster immune system.

question

Sleep Deprivation

answer

any significant loss of sleep, resulting in problems in concentration and irritability.

question

Effects of sleep deprivation

answer

trembling hands, inattention, staring off into space, droopy eyelids, and general discomfort, as well as emotional symptoms such as irritability and even depression.

question

4 stags of sleep (Non REM)

answer

1. (theta waves) Light Sleep, easily awakened; 2. Temperature, breathing and heart rate decrease; 3. & 4. (Delta Waves) growth hormones released, hard to wake up

question

REM Sleep

answer

(Rapid Eye Movement) relatively active type of sleep when most of a person's dreaming takes place, whereas Non-REM sleep is a much deeper, more restful kind of sleep

question

Why is REM Sleep important

answer

* in infants: not dreaming, but rather forming new connections between neurons. * in adults: needed for dealing with the stresses and tensions of the day, whereas physical activity would demand more time for recovery of the body in NREM.

question

Various types of sleep disorders

answer

REM Behavior disorder Nightmares Sleepwalking (somnambulism) Night terrors Insomnia Sleep Apnea Narcolepsy

question

Techniques used to treat insomnia

answer

* Do not do anything in your bed but sleep (no studying or watching tv) * Keep to a regular schedule (go to bed at the same time and wake at the same time, even off days) * Go to bed when you are sleepy * deal with anxieties during the daytime * no caffeinated drinks or foods that cause indigestion before bedtime.

question

Dream Theories

answer

...

question

Hypnosis

answer

State of consciousness in which the person is especially susceptible to suggestion.

question

Myths and theories of Hypnosis

answer

...

question

Psychoactive Drugs

answer

Drugs that alter thinking, perception, and memory.

question

Tolerance and withdrawal of Psychoactive Drugs

answer

* Tolerance: Sign of physical dependence: As the person continues to use the drug, larger and larger doses of the drug are needed to achieve the same initial effects of the drug. * Withdrawal: Sign of physical dependence: when deprives of drug. Depending on the drug, these symptoms can range from headaches, nausea, and irritability to severe pain, cramping, shaking, and dangerously elevated blood pressure. This can occur because the body is trying to adjust to the absense of the drug/s.

question

Differences between drug abuse, physiological dependence and psychological dependence.

answer

* Psychological Dependence: the belief that the drug is needed to continue a feeling of emotion or psychoogical well being. * Physiological Dependence: condition when a person's body becomes unable to function normally w/o a particular drug.

question

Categories of drug use

answer

* Stimulants * Depressants * Hallucinogens

question

Stimulants (Drugs & Effects)

answer

Drugs that increase the functioning of the nervous system

question

Depressants (Drugs & Effects)

answer

Drugs that decrease the functioning of the nervous system

question

Hallucinogens (Drugs & Effects)

answer

Drugs including hallucinogens and marijuana that produce hallucinations or increased feelings of relaxation and intoxication.

question

Signs of Physical Dependency

answer

*Drug Tolerance - as the person continues to use the drug, larger and larger doses of the drug are needed to achieve the same initial effects of the drug. *Withdrawal - symptoms can range from nausea, headaches, and irritability to severe pain, cramping, shaking and dangerously elevated blood pressure.

question

Binge Drinking and it's dangers

answer

* health risks to the liver, brain, and heart. * drinking four or five drinks within a limited amount of time, such as "happy hour". quickly leads to being drunk, and drunkenness is a major sign of alcoholism. * feeling guilty about drinking, drinking in the am, drinking to recover from drinking, drinking so much that one does and says things one later regrets, drinking alone, being sensitive about how much one drinks when others mention it, drinking so much that one does and says things one later regrets, drinking enough to have blackouts or memory loss, drinking too fast, lying about drinking, and drinking enough to pass out.

question

How can you tell if you are sleep deprived

answer

trembling hands, inattention, staring off into space, droopy eyelids, and general discomfort, as well as emotional symptoms such as irritability and even depression.

question

Alpha Waves

answer

larger and slower brain waves that indicate a state of relaxation or light sleep

question

Theta Waves

answer

even slower and larger Brain Waves indicating the early stages of sleep

question

Delta Waves

answer

Long, slow waves that indicate the deepest stage of sleep

question

Beta Waves

answer

Person wide awake, very small and very fast

question

What is learning?

answer

Relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience.

question

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

answer

a naturally occuring stimulus that leads to an involuntary (reflex) response.

question

What are the basic principles of classical conditioning?

answer

the kind of learning that occurs with reflexive, involuntary behavior. Ex. when you blink because a gnat flies to close to your eye.

question

Extinction

answer

the disapperance or weakening of a learned response following the removal or absense of the unconditioned stimulus (in classical conditioning) or the removal of a reinforcer (in operant conditioning).

question

Spontaneous recovery

answer

The reappearnace of a learned response after extinction has occured

question

Stimulus Generalization

answer

the tendency to respond to a stimulus that is only similar to the original conditioned stimulus with the conditioned response.

question

Stimulus Discrimination

answer

the tendency to stop making a generalized response to a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus because the similar stimulus is never paired with the unconditioned stimulus.

question

What is higher-order conditioning?

answer

occurs when a strong conditioned stimulus is paired with a neutral stimulus, causing the neutral stimulus to become a second conditioned stimulus.

question

What is a CER? Understand the example of Little Albert

answer

Conditioned Emotional Response (CER) - emotional response that has become classically conditioned to occur to learned stimuli, such as a fear of dogs or the emotional reaction that occurs when seeing an attractive person. UCS - loud noise UCR - fear of the noise CS - white rat CR - fear of the rat (phobia)

question

Be familiar with vicarious conditioning

answer

classical conditioning of a reflex response or emotion by watching the reaction of another person.

question

Understand 1. taste aversions & 2. biological preparedness

answer

1. development of a nausea or aversive response to a particular taste because that taste was followed by a nausea reaction, occuring after only one association. 2. referring to the tendency of animals to learn certain associations, such as taste and nausea, w/ only one or few pairings due to the survival value of the learning.

question

How does the cognitive perspective explain classical conditioning?

answer

modern theory in which classical conditioning is seen to occur because the conditioned stimulus provides information or an expectancy about the coming of the unconditioned stimulus.

question

What is the basic premise of operant (instrumental) conditioning?

answer

the learning of voluntary behavior through the effects of pleasant and unpleasant consequences to responses. "reinforcement is the key to learning"

question

What is the Law of Effect?

answer

law stating that if an action is followed by a pleasurable consequence, it will tend to be repeated, and if followed by an unpleasant consequence, it will tend not to be repeated.

question

Who was Skinner?

answer

was the behaviorist who assumed leadership of the field after John Watson. He was even more determind than Watson that psychologists should study only measurable , observabler behavior. Found in the work of Thorndike a way to explain all behavior as the product of learning. He gave the learning of voluntary behavior a special name (operant conditioning)

question

What is reinforcement(strengthen)? Be familiar with 2 types

answer

any event or stimulus, that when following a response, increases the probability that the response will occur again.

question

Be familiar with 1. primary and 2. secondary reinforcers

answer

1. any reinforcer that is naturally reinforcing by meeting a basic biological need, such as hunger, thirst, or touch. 2. any reinforcer that becomes reinforcing after being paired with a primary reinforcer, such as praise, tokens, or gold stars.

question

How does 1. punishment differ from 2. reinforcement?

answer

1. any event or object that, when following a response, makes that response less likely to happen again. 2. any event or stimulus, that when following a response, increases the probability that the response will occur again.

question

Understand the differences between 1. positive punishment and 2. negative punishment.

answer

2. Punishment by removal: the punishment of a response by the removal of a pleasurable stimulus. 1. Punishment by Application: the punishment of a response by the addition or experiencing of an unpleasant stimulus.

question

Be familiar with the problems with or disadvantages of punishment

answer

* hitting provides a successful model for aggression * Severe punishment creates fear and anxiety, emotional responses that do not promote learning. * leads to abuse * severe punishment may encourage lying to avoid the punishment * severe punishment may cause the child to avoid the punisher instead of the behavior being punished, so the child learns the wrong response.

question

What factors affect the effectiveness of punishment?

answer

* Punishment should immediately follow the behavior it is meant to punish. * Punishment should be consistent. * Punishment of the wrong behavior should be paired, whenever possible, with reinforcement of the right behavior.

question

What is shaping?

answer

the reinforcement of simple steps in behavior that lead to a desired, more complex behavior.

question

How do extinction, generalization and spontaneous recovery relate to operant conditioning?

answer

*extinction involves the removal of the UCS (reinforcement), that eventually acts as a reinforcer of the CS-CR bond * Spontaneous recovery (the recurrence of a conditional response after extinction) will also happen with operant response.

question

How do 1.continuous and 2.partial reinforcement differ?

answer

1. the reinforcement of each and every correct response. 2. the tendency for a response that is reinforced after some, but not all, correct responses to be very resistant to extinction.

question

Understand schedules of reinforcement

answer

* Fixed Interval Schedule of Reinforcement: schedule of reinforcement in which the interval of time that must pass before reinforcement becomes possible is always the same. * Variable Interval: schedule of reinforcement in which the interval of time that must pass before reinforcement becomes possible is different for each trial or event. * Fixed Ratio: schedule of reinforcement in which the number of responses required for reinforcement is always the same. * Variable Ratio: Schedule of reinforcement in which the number of responses required for reinforcement is different for each trial or event.

question

Understand superstitious behavior

answer

...

question

What is congnitive learning? Understand latent learning & learned helplessness.

answer

Latent Learning: learning that remains hidden until its application becomes useful. Learned Helplessness: the tendency to fail to act to escape from a situation because of a history of repeated failures in the past.

question

Be familiar with observational learning.

answer

learning new behavior by watching a model perform that behavior

question

Understand Bandura's experiment. How might his experiment be applied to the media-aggression argument?

answer

Children learned violent behavior by positive reinforcements. Heroes and Bad Guys. Violence on TV

question

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

answer

an involuntary (reflex) response to a naturally occuring or unconditioned stimulus.

question

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

answer

stimulus that becomes able to produce a learned reflex response by being paired with the orginal unconditioned stimulus

question

Conditioned Response (CR)

answer

learned reflex to a conditioned stimulus.

question

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

answer

stimulus that has no effect on the desired response.

question

What is Memory?

answer

an active system that receives information from the senses, puts that information into a usable form, and organizes it as it stores it away, and then retrieves the information from storage.

question

Encoding (1 of 3 process' of Memory)

answer

the set of mental operations that people perform on sensory information to convert that information into a form that is usable in the brain's storage systems.

question

Storage (1 of 3 process' of Memory)

answer

holding onto information for some period of time

question

Retrieval (1 of 3 process' of Memory)

answer

getting information that is in storage into a form that can be used.

question

How does the "levels of processing model" explain memory?

answer

*3 systems or stages model of memory that assumes information that is more "deeply processed", or processed according to its meaning rather than just the sound or physical characteristics of the word or words, will be remembered more efficiently and for a longer period of time.

question

What is the PDP model of memory?

answer

* Parallel Distributed Processing a model of memory in which memory processes are proposed to take place at the same time over a large network of neural connections.

question

Sensory: Memory System/Stage from the information processing model

answer

* Main process - pattern recognition (icons & echoes) * Capacity - large but not limited * Duration of sensory codes - very brief

question

STM: Memory System/Stage from the information processing model

answer

* Selective attention moves information to STM * Capacity - "magical" number 7 * Expand via chunking (grouping) * Duration - 12 to 30 seconds * maintenance rehearsal - (repeating)

question

LTM: Memory System/Stage from the information processing model

answer

* Essentially permanent * Requires elaborative rehearsal (meaningful connections)

question

How are iconic and echoic memory different?

answer

* Iconic Memory is visual sensory memory, lasting only a fraction of a second. * Echoic Memory is brief memory of something a person has just heard.

question

How is selective attention related to memory?

answer

(STM) The ability to focus on only one stimulus from among all sensory input.

question

Why is STM considered to be "working memory?"

answer

...

question

What is chunking and how does it help memory?

answer

The process of recoding, or reorganizing information. * There is a way to "fool" STM into holding more information than usual. (think of it as "stacking" related files on the desk). If the bits of info are combined into meaningful units, or chunks, more information can be hed in STM.

question

Maintenance Rehearsal

answer

practice of saying some information to be remembered over and over in one's head in order to maintain it in STM

question

Elaborative Rehearsal

answer

a method of transferring information from STM into LTM by making that information meaningful in some way.

question

Procedural (nondeclarative) Memory

answer

type of long-term memory including memory for skills, procedures, habits, and conditioned responses. These memories are not conscious but are implied to exist because they affect conscious behavior.

question

Declarative Memory

answer

type of LTM containing information that is conscious and known.

question

Semantic Memory

answer

type of declarative memory containing general knowledge, such as knowledge of language and information learned in formal education.

question

Episodic Memory

answer

type of declarative memory containing personal information not readily available to others, such as daily activities and events.

question

How do explicit and implicit memory differ

answer

The difference between implicit memories, such as how to balance on a bicycle, and explicit memores, such as naming all the planets, is that it is impossible or extremely difficult to bring implicit memories in consciousness. explicit memories can be forgotten but always have the potential to be made conscious.

question

Retrieval Cues

answer

a stimulus for remembering.

question

Encoding Specificity Principle

answer

the tendency for memory of information to be improved if related information (such as surroundings or physiological state) available when the memory is first formed is also available when the memory is being retrieved.

question

Context-dependent memory effect

answer

...

question

How do recognition and recall differ

answer

in recall, memories are retrieved with few or no external cues, such as filling in the blanks on an application form. Recognition, on the other hand, involves looking at or hearing information and matching it to what is already in memory. a word-search puzzle, in which the words are already written down in the grid and simply need to be circled, is an example of recognition.

question

Serial position effect

answer

tendency of information at the beginning and end of a body of information to be remembered more accurately than information in the middle of the body of information.

question

Flashbulb Memories

answer

type of automatic encoding that occurs because an unexpected event has strong emotional associations for the person remembering it.

question

Constructive Processing

answer

referring to the retrieval of memories in which those memories are altered, revised, or influenced by newer information.

question

False Memory Syndrome

answer

refers to the creation of inaccurate or false memories through the suggestion of others, often while the person is under hypnosis.

question

Causes of Forgetting: Encoding

answer

encoding failure: the failure to process information into the memory. (penny experiment)

question

Causes of Forgetting: Decay or Disuse

answer

loss of memory due to the passage of time, during which the memory trace is not used.

question

Causes of Forgetting: 2 Types of interference

answer

* Proactive Interference: memory retrieval problem that occurs when older information prevents or interferes with the retrieval of newer information. * Retroactive Interference: memory retrieval problem that occurs when newer information prevents or interferes with the retrieval of older information.

question

Consolidation

answer

the changes that take place in the structure and functioning of neurons when an engram is formed.

question

Difference between retrograde and anterograde amnesia

answer

* Retrograde Amnesia: loss of memory from the point of some injury or trauma backwards, or loss of memory for the past. * Anterograde Amnesia: loss of memories from the point of injury or illness forward.

question

infantile amnesia

answer

the inability to retrieve memories from much before age 3.

question

Why is the hippocampal region important?

answer

plays a vital role in the formation of new declarative LTM.

question

Specific methods for improving memory

answer

...

General Psychology: Chapter 4, 5, & 6 – Flashcards

Unlock all answers in this set

Haven't found what you were looking for?

Search for samples, answers to your questions and flashcards