General Psychology Unit 1 – Flashcards
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a set of principles that organizes and predicts observations
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theory
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a specific prediction that we can put to a test
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hypothesis
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repeating an experiment to see if a similar result is obtained
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replication
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a measure of people's self-reported attitudes and behaviors
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survey
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everyone in the group you are studying
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population
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a sample that is a fair representation of the total population, where all members of the total group have an equal chance of being included in the study
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random sample
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when two things vary together (when one thing changes, the other tends to change, also) and therefore one can, to a certain extent, predict the other
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correlation
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when two things tend to change in the same direction
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positive correlation
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when two things tend to change in opposite direction
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negative correlation
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a mathematical index of how much two things are correlated (how much one can predict the other)
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correlation coefficient
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factors/things that can change or vary
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variables
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a research method in which an investigator manipulates one of more factors, called independent variables, to observe their effect on behaviors or mental processes, which would then be dependent variables
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experiment
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the factors being manipulated or changed in the experiment by the experimenter
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independent variables
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the factors being measured, the results we are interested in
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dependent variables
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the people or animals being studied or experimented on
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subjects
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the parts of the experiment that expose subjects to the treatment, to one version of the independent variables; these subjects are the experimental groups, the subjects you try out the independent variable on
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experimental conditions and experimental groups
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the conditions you use for comparison, to see if the experimental condition changes the dependent variables; control groups are the subjects you use to compare the experimental groups to, to see if the experimental groups really changed in a meaningful way on dependent variables
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control conditions or control groups
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assigning participants to the experimental conditions and groups or the control conditions and groups by chance, so that each participant is equally likely to be in one or the other. This minimizes the differences between participants in the experimental groups and the control groups, so that any differences in the results are likely to be due to differences in the independent variables
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random assignment
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a neutral, harmless, inconsequential substance or treatment designed to make subjects think they are getting the real thing
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placebo
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an experimental procedure in which neither the subjects nor the experimenters are aware of who is receiving the treatment and who is receiving the placebo
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double blind procedure
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the odds that the results observed, often differences between groups or correlations between variables, could have happened just by chance, through entirely random variation
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statistical significance
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an individual nerve cell; the entire nervous system is built of neurons
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neuron
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the main part of the cell, the life-support center of the cell
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cell body
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on the input end of the neuron, bushy, branching extensions from the cell body that receive messages and conduct impulses to the cell body
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dendrites
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on the output end of the neuron, an elongated part of the cell on the opposite end from the dendrites, ending in tiny fibers that send messages to other neurons or sometimes to muscles or glands, depending on which type of cell they are adjacent to
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axon
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a layer of segmented fatty tissues surrounding the axon, that greatly speeds up the transmission of neural impulses and increase their effectiveness
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myelin sheath
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a brief, electrical charge, a wave of electro-chemical energy, that travels very rapidly from the input end of the neuron to the output end, down the axon
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neural impulse
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the junction between the tip of the axon of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron
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synapse
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the tiny gap between the two neurons at the synapse
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synaptic gap/cleft
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chemical messengers released by the neuron when it fires, that may (or may not) bind to receptor sites on the next neuron, influencing the likelihood that the next neuron will fire
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neurotransmitters
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the process by which excess neurotransmitter chemicals are reabsorbed by the sending neuron
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reputake
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natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters produced in your own brain, that are linked to pain control and pleasure
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endorphins
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all the nerve cells of the body; the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network
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nervous system
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the brain and spinal chord
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central nervous system
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the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body
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peripheral nervous system
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natural "cables" that contain many axons, bundled together, that are part of the peripheral nervous system, connecting the central nervous system to the muscles, glands and sense organs
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nerves
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neurons that carry incoming information from the sense receptors (in your eyes, ears, skin, etc.) to the central nervous system
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sensory neurons
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neurons that carry outgoing command information from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands
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motor neurons
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neurons within the brain and spinal chord that communicate internally in between the sensory inputs and the motor outputs (deciding what to do about them)
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interneurons
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the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's voluntary skeletal muscles (muscles attached to bones)
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somatic nervous system
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the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs that operate automatically, without conscious decision or instruction
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autonomic nervous system
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the part of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body and mobilizes its energy
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sympathetic nervous system
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the part of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body and conserves its energy
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parasympathetic nervous system
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a set of glands that secrete hormones into the blood stream
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endocrine system
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chemical messengers, manufactured by the endocrine glands, that are produced in one part of the body but have effects elsewhere, affecting other tissues (including the neurons of the brain)
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hormones
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a pair of endocrine glands just above the kidneys, that secrete the hormones EPINEPHRINE (ADRENALINE) and NOREPINEPHRINE (NORADRENALINE), which arouse the body in times of stress
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adrenal glands
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a pea-sized structure located in the core of the brain and controlled by the hypothalamus; the most influential gland in the endocrine system, controlling the other endocrine glands and regulating growth in the body
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pituitary gland
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studied frequently in psychology
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brain injuries
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destroy, remove brain tissue intentionally
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lesions
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stimulate parts of the brain. unique because you don't need general anesthetic
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brain surgery
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doesn't work well because the skull separate the brain and its hard to see through an x ray
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conventional x-rays
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revolutionized brain study inject dye and have series of precise x-rays, each one is like a slice of they brain and then they put them together
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CT (computerized tomography) scans (CAT SCANS)
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using magnetic fields and radio waves that can determine density soft tissue
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MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) scans
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attach electrons to the scalp to see brain waves they use electrode paste and a hypodermic needle
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electroencephalgram (EEG)
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Inject radioactive glucose into blood stream and scan brain as the cells take in the glucose parts of the brain light up when its active
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Pet Scan (Positron Emission Tomography)
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can see things as they happen in brain cognitive function in real time
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fMRI (functional MRI scans)
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the oldest part and the central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; responsible for the automatic survival functions
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brain stem
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the base of the brain stem, controlling heartbeat and breathing
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medulla
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nerve network in the brain stem that plays an important part in controlling arousal
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reticular formation
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the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brain stem, directing messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmitting replies to the cerebellum and medulla
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thalamus
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or "little brain", attached to the rear of the brain stem, helps coordinate voluntary movement and balance
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cerebellum
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a donut-shaped system of neural structures at the border of the brain stem and the cerebral hemispheres, associated with emotions such as fear and aggression and drives such as those for food and sex; includes the hippocampus, the amygdala and the hypothalmus
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limbic system
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involved in processing long term memory
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hippcampus
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two almond-shaped neural clusters that are linked to emotion
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amygdala
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a neural structure lying below the thalamus, directing hunger and eating, thirst and drinking, body temperature, and sexual behavior; includes pleasure centers
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hypothalmus
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the left and right halves of the large, almost spherical, main part of the brain that sits atop the brain stem
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cerebral hemispheres
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a fabric of interconnected neural cells forming a thin surface layer of the brain, covering the cerebral hemispheres; the ultimate control and information-processing center of the brain, also providing our conscious awareness
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cerebral cortex
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"glue cells" that are not neurons themselves, but support, nourish and protect neurons
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glial cells
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just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and making plans and judgements
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frontal lobes
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at the top of the head, toward the rear; include the sensory input for touch and body position
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parietal lobes
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at the back of the head, just above the neck; include visual input areas
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occipital lobes
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low on the side, in the region above the ears; include auditory input areas
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temporal lobes
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an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movement
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motor cortex
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highly experimental devices (nowhere near ready for medical use yet) that take information from recording electrodes placed in the motor cortex of the brain and use it to operate mechanical devices to perform some of the functions of damaged, missing or unusable body parts)
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neural prosthetic
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the area at the front of the parietal lobes receives and processes sensations of touch and movement from your body
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sensory cortex
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areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary sensory or motor functions, but rather are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking and speaking; they show no obvious response to direct electrical stimulation
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association areas
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the brain's ability to adapt, at least partially after injury and modify its functioning; however, many effects of brain damage are permanent
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plasticity
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a large band of neural fibers deep in the brain, connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them; the primary means of communication between the two brain hemispheres
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corpus callosum
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our awareness of ourselves and our environment; the process of focusing our awareness on internal or external events and experiences that we can report
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consciousness
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simultaneously processing information on separate conscious and unconscious tracks
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dual processing
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focusing of conscious attention only on certain stimluli
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selective attention
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a condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without being consciously aware of it
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blindsight
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failing to perceive objects when our attention is directed elsewhere
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inattentional blindness
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failing to consciously notice changes in environment
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change blindeness
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a state of narrowly focused attention in which the hypnotized person becomes usually suggestible
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hypnosis
