Module 2: General psychology – Flashcards
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Learning
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Any relative relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience or practice. "relative permanent"- when people learn anything, some part of their brain is physically changes to record what they have learned.
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Ivan Pavlov
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Russian physiologist (person who studies the workings of the body) who discovered classical conditioning through his work on digestion in dogs.
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What is the difference between Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning?
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Classical Conditioning(involuntary) is learning to make a reflex response to a stimulus other than the original, natural stimulus that normally produced the reflex while Operant Conditioning (voluntary) the learning of voluntary behavior through the effects of pleasant and unpleasant consequences to responses.
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Conditional Stimulus
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stimulus the becomes able to produce a learned reflex response by being paired with the original unconditioned stimulus. Conditioned means "learned" A neutral stimulus (NS) can become a conditioned stimulus when paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
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Stimulus Generalization
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The tendency to respond to a stimulus that is only similar to the original conditioned stimulus with the conditioned response.
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Stimulus Discrimination
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The tendency to stop making a generalized response to a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus because the similar stimulus is never paired with the unconditioned stimulus.
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Extinction
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Disappearance or weakening of a learned response following the removal or absence of an unconditioned stimulus (in classical conditioning) or removal of a reinforcer (in operant conditioning).
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Spontaneous Recovery
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Reappearance of a learned response after the extinction has occurred - Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior.
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Conditional Emotional Response
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Emotional response the has become classically conditioned to occur to learned stimuli. Ex: Fear of Dogs
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Vicarious Conditioning
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Classical conditioning of a reflex response or emotion by watching the reaction of another person.
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Condition Taste Aversion
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Development of a nausea or aversive response to a particular taste because that taste was followed by a nausea reaction
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Thorndike's Law of Effect
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-If a response is followed by a pleasurable consequence, it will tend to be repeated. -If a response is followed by an unpleasant consequence, it will tend not to be repeated
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BF Skinner
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Skinner was a behaviorist; he wanted to study only observable. measurable behavior. Gave "operant conditioning" its name Operant: any behavior that is voluntary
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What is the difference between positive and negative reinforcement?
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Positive reinforcement the reinforcement of a response by the addition or experience of a pleasurable stimulus while negative reinforcement the reinforcement of a response by the removal, escape from, or avoidance of an unpleasant stimulus.
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Partial Reinforcement
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a response that is reinforced after some—but not all—correct responses tends to be very resistant to extinction.
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Continual Reinforcement
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Reinforcement of each and every correct response.
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Punishment
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Any event or object that, when following a response, makes that response less likely to happen again.
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What is the difference between Punishment by Application and Punishment by Removal?
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Punishment by Application is the punishment of a response by the addition or experience of an unpleasant stimulus while punishment by removal is the punishment of a response by the removal or experience of an pleasant stimulus.
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Behavior Modification
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Use of operant conditioning techniques to bring about desired changes in behavior.
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Token Discovery
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A type of behavior modification in which desired behavior is rewarded with tokens.
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Time-out
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Form of mild punishment by removal in which a misbehaving animal, child, or adult is placed in a special area away from the attention of others.
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Memory
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An active system that receives information from the senses, organizes and alters that information as it stores it away, and then retrieves the information from storage.
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List and define the three (3) processes of memory.
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Encoding: the set of mental operations that people perform on sensory information in order to convert that information into a form that is usable in the brain's storage systems Storage: holding onto information for some period of time Retrieval: getting information that is in storage into a form that can be used
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List the three (3) models of memory.
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The information-processing model assumes that the processing of information for memory storage is similar to the way in which a computer processes memory-- in a series of 3 stages. Parallel distributed processing (PDP) model: memory The levels of processing model assumes that information that is more "deeply processed"--or processed according to its meaning, rather than just the sound or physical characteristics of the word or words-- will be remembered more efficiently and for a longer period of time.
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Sensory Memory
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the very first stage of memory The point at which information enters the nervous systems through sensory systems
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What is the difference between short-term and long-term memory?
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Short- term memory is the memory system in which information is held for brief periods of time while being used while the memory system into which all the information is placed to be kept more or less permanently.
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Chunking
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bits of information are combined into meaningful units, or chunks, so that more information can be held in STM.
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What is the difference between episodic memory and flashbulb memory?
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Episodic memory is declarative memory containing personal information not readily available to others while flashbulb memory automatic encoding that occurs because an unexpected event has strong emotional associations for the person remembering it.
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Retrieval cue
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Stimulus for remembering Priming can occur; that is to say, experience with information or concepts can improve later performance.
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Recall
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Memory retrieval in which the information to be retrieved must be "pulled" from memory with very few external cues.
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Retrieval failure
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Recall has failed (at least temporarily).
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What type of bias is displayed when an individual is a Monday morning arm chair quarterback?
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Hindsight bias: the tendency to falsely believe, through revision of older memories to include newer information, that one could have correctly predicted the outcome of an event.
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How many cases of Alzheimer's exist within the United States? Is there a cure for Alzheimer's?
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5.3 million cases in U.S. There are various drugs in use or in development for use in slowing or stopping the progression of Alzheimer/s disease, but there is no cure.
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List four risk factors of Alzheimer's.
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High cholesterol High blood pressure Smoking Obesity Type II diabetes Lack of exercise
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Thinking
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Mental activity that goes on in the brain when a person is processing information. Processing includes organizing, understand, and communicating that information to others.
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What is the difference between formal concepts and natural concepts?
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Formal concepts are concepts that are defined by specific rules or features while concepts people form as a result of their experiences in the real world.
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Problem Solving
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Occurs when a goal must be reached by thinking and behaving in a certain ways.
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Decision Making
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Identifying, evaluating, and choosing between alternatives.
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Trial and Error
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Problem solving method in which one possible solution after another is tried until a successful one is found.
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What is it called when something is an educated guess or rule of thumb?
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Heuristic- educated guess based on prior experiences that helps narrow down the possible solution for a problem; also know as a "rule of thumb"
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What is an "Aha" moment called?
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Insight: sudden perception of a solution to a problem
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Intelligence
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The ability to learn from one's experiences, acquire knowledge, and use resources effectively in adapting to new situations or solving problems
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Spearmen's two theory factors of Intelligence
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G factor: the ability to reason and solve problems general intelligence S factor: the ability to excel in certain areas; specific intelligence
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Sternberg's three Triarchic Theories of Intelligence
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Analytical intelligence: the ability to break problems down into component parts, or analysis, for problem solving Creative intelligence: the ability to deal with new and different concepts to come up with new ways of solving problems Practical Intelligence: the ability to use information to get along in life and become successful; "street smarts"
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Intelligence Quotation (IQ)
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A number representing a measure of intelligence; results from the division of one's mental age by one's chronological are then multiplied by 100.
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Reliabilty
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The tendency of a test to produce the same scores again and again each time it is given to same people.
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Validity
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The to which a test actually measures what its suppose to measure.
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Wechsler Intelligence Test
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yield a verbal score and a performance score, as well as an overall score of intelligence.
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Intellectual Disability
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A person exhibits deficits in mental ability and adaptive behavior.
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What are some causes of developmental delay?
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Smoking or drinking during pregnancy.
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Language
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A system for combining symbols (such as words) so that an unlimited number of meaningful statements can be made for the purpose of communicating with others.
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What are two ways to improve thinking?
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Mental activities that require creativity and the use of memory abilities can help keep the brain fit. Crossword puzzles Reading books
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What type of bias is displayed when an individual is a Monday morning arm chair quarterback?
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Hindsight bias: the tendency to falsely believe, through revision of older memories to include newer information, that one could have correctly predicted the outcome of an event.
