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LEARNING

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a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience

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Why are we fortunate to be capable of learning?

answer

We are able to adapt to our environment.

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How hard is it to form a new habit?

answer

It can take 66 days to form a new habit.

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BEHAVIORISM

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the view advocated by the eminent psychologist JOHN B. WATSON, that psychology should be an objective science that studies external behavior without any necessity to consider the internal mental process.

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JOHN B. WATSON

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studied BEHAVIORISM

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IVAN PAVLOV

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He was a medical researcher and the first Russian to win the Nobel Prize. He studied digestion and salivation (in dogs).

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What did PAVLOV discover and develop?

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CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

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How did PAVLOV discover and then scientifically demonstrate classical conditioning in his original experiment?

answer

He performed an experiment in which a dog learned to react to a specific tone because he knew that meant food was coming. This allowed them to see how the dog was thinking and supported BEHAVIORISM

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CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

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a kind of learning in which a subject learns to associate one stimulus with another stimulus that is followed by a certain event, such that the subject learns to respond to the first stimulus as if it were the second one. (dog salivating at tone bc he knows food comes after)

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UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS (UCS or US)

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a stimulus that naturally brings about a response you are looking at, without any learning having to take place. (the food was the US in PAVLOV's experiment)

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UNCONDITIONED RESPONSE (UCR or UR)

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a naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus, a response that does not require any learning in order to take place (the drool at the sight of the food was the UR in PAVLOV's experiment)

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In general, what does "unconditioned" mean?

answer

natural, built-in, automatic, not requiring any learning in order to occur

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NEUTRAL STIMULUS (NS)

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a stimulus that does not (initially) bring about the response you are interested in (the musical tone was the NS in PAVLOV's experiment)

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CONDITIONED STIMULUS (CS)

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and originally neutral stimulus that, after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus, takes on the ability to bring about the response that originally followed the unconditioned stimulus (the musical tone became the CS in PAVLOV's experiment)

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CONDITIONED RESPONSE (CR)

answer

a learned response to a previously neutral stimulus that is not the conditioned stimulus ( the dog learning to drool at the sound of the musical tone is the CR in PAVLOV's experiment)

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In general, what does the word "conditioned" mean?

answer

not natural, not built-in, not automatic; something that would only happen if learning had occurred

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How would you diagram and label Pavlov's original experiment?

answer

FOOD (UCS) -> DROOL (UR) TONE (NS)+FOOD (UCS) -> DROOL (UR) TONE (CS)+FOOD (UCS) -> DROOL (CR) TONE (CS) -> DROOL (CR)

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ACQUISITION

answer

the initial learning of a stimulus-response relationship in which a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus capable of bringing about the conditioned response

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In PAVLOV's studies, what was the optimal interval between presenting the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the unconditioned stimulus (UCS)?

answer

the best interval is 1/2 second

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What is the usual result if the interval is too long, or if the conditioned stimulus comes after the unconditioned stimulus?

answer

If the interval is too long or the order is incorrect, the connection will not be made. Always have a short interval and present the conditioned stimulus before the unconditioned stimulus.

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What happened in a modern experiment with Japanese quail?

answer

They let quake explore a cage for a while then turned on the light to reveal a female quail. The male and female would mate and then they would turn the light back off and remove the female. They put the female back in every time they turned on the red light, so the quail learned what it meant.

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How may sexual arousal be conditioned in humans?

answer

If a guy dates a girl who loves onions, the smell of onions will trigger his memories of her. Or, in Dr. C's case, Claudette's perfume.

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EXTINCTION

answer

the diminishing of a conditioned response; specifically, in classical conditioning, when an unconditioned stimulus no longer follows the conditioned stimulus, until the conditioned response diminishes or disappears

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SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY

answer

the reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a period of time in which there has been no training

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GENERALIZATION

answer

following the establishment of a conditioned response, the tendency for stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus to bring about similar responses (some experts refer to this as "stimulus generalization")

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DISCRIMINATION

answer

the learned ability to tell the difference between the conditioned stimulus that will be followed by the unconditioned stimulus, and other, similar stimuli that will not be followed by the unconditioned stimulus

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Can conditions (internal thought processes) influence classical conditioning?

answer

yes

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How may this happen, for instance, in attempts to condition alcoholics to stop drinking?

answer

gave guys a drug that would make them sick if they drank, but they just waited on it to leave their system to drink

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WATSON and RAYNER and their experiment with LITTLE ALBERT

answer

Albert was playing with the mouse and every time he would try to touch the rat, they would play a loud "boom" sound. Eventually, Albert would cry just at the sight of the rat or anything like him because he was afraid of the "boom".

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What two things did WATSON and RAYNER demonstrate?

answer

1. Fear could be the result of a conditioning. 2. Once the fear was conditioned, it would be generalized.

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Are fears produced in real life as a result of a classical conditioning and generalization? What is an example?

answer

When Dr. C ran over his little girl, she was afraid to go anywhere near outside. This is an example of generalization.

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What is the difference between classical conditioning and operant conditioning?

answer

In classical conditioning, the subject learns to form associations between events it does not control, while in operant conditioning, the subject learns associations between its own behavior and the events that result from it.

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OPERANT CONDITIONING

answer

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if it is followed by reinforcement and diminished if it is punished or not followed by reinforcement

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RESPONDENT BEHAVIOR

answer

behavior that occurs automatically in response to certain stimuli

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OPERANT BEHAVIOR

answer

voluntary behavior that operates on the environment to produce either rewarding or punishing consequences

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Who developed operant conditioning, and what did B.F. SKINNER base his work on?

answer

B.F. SKINNER said that behaviors that are followed by positive consequences will become more frequent and negative or no consequences make action less frequent.

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THORNDIKE'S LAW OF EFFECT

answer

behaviors that are followed by a favorable consequence become more likely, while behaviors followed by negative consequences become less likely

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SKINNER BOX or OPERANT CHAMBER

answer

an isolated cage in which a subject (like a rat or a pigeon) can do something (like push a bar or peck a key) in order to get a reward (like food or water), while a mechanical device records and counts the subject's responses

question

SHAPING

answer

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of a desired goal

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REINFORCER

answer

any event that strengthens the behavior is follows

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PRIMARY REINFORCER

answer

an innately reinforcing stimulus such as one that satisfies a biological need

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SECONDARY or CONDITIONED REINFORCER

answer

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer

question

If you followed Dr. C's classic example, how would you use shaping to get a pigeon to bowl? What would be the point of this?

answer

You would use SKINNER's technique of rewarding progressive approximations to the goal by giving the pigeon a piece of food each time he makes a step in the right direction.

question

POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT

answer

strengthens a response by adding a positive stimulus after the response; increases the probability that the subject will repeat the response that preceded it (the response that came before the positive reinforcement) ex: giving a dog a treat each time he does a trick

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NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT

answer

strengthens a response by removing a negative, aversive, unpleasant stimulus after the response

question

In using operant conditioning to solve real-world behavior problems, what is the first step?

answer

1. TERMINAL GOAL 2. BASELINE BEHAVIOR 3. REINFORCING SUCCESSIVE APPROXIMATIONS TO THE GOAL

question

TERMINAL GOAL

answer

the target behavior, the last (terminal) response the subject makes in a chain of leaned behaviors; once achieved, the conditioning process is finished (terminated); the terminal goal must be defined in objectively measurable terms, so that there is no question whether it has or has not been achieved

question

BASELINE BEHAVIOR

answer

the behavior patterns of the subject before training begins. like the terminal goal, the baseline behaviors must be objectively measurable, so that it is clear whether or not any progress is being made. Baseline behaviors are important because you always start with whatever behavior the subject is engaging in, and work from there.

question

REINFORCING SUCCESSIVE APPROXIMATIONS TO THE GOAL

answer

rewarding (reinforcing) any slight behavioral change that is a step in the right direction, until you finally reach the terminal goal; steps on the wrong direction are ignored and thus not reinforced

question

IMMEDIATE REINFORCEMENT

answer

rewarding the desired behavior immediately -animals work well with this

question

DELAYED REINFORCEMENT

answer

reward comes later (going to class=good grade) -humans work well with this

question

CONTINUOUS REINFORCEMENT

answer

reinforcement every single time you preform the action

question

How does CONTINUOUS REINFORCEMENT influence acquisition and extinction of a response?

answer

the response will not last very long if you stop providing the rewarding

question

PARTIAL/INTERMITTENT REINFORCEMENT

answer

not rewarding the action every single time

question

How does PARTIAL/INTERMITTENT REINFORCEMENT influence acquisition and extinction of a response?

answer

lasts much longer than when CONTINUOUS REINFORCEMENT is used

question

FIXED RATIO SCHEDULE OF REINFORCEMENT

answer

rewarding in specific intervals (every 5th time, etc.)

question

VARIABLE RATIO SCHEDULE OF REINFORCEMENT

answer

rewarding in average intervals

question

How does VARIABLE RATIO SCHEDULE OF REINFORCEMENT influence responding?

answer

they will preform the action continuously in hopes that the next time will be rewarded ex: people will gamble for hours hoping to win the jackpot

question

FIXED INTERVAL SCHEDULE OF REINFORCEMENT

answer

always allowing the same amount of time to pass before each reward ex: "I will reward the correct response every five minutes."

question

How does FIXED INTERVAL SCHEDULE OF REINFORCEMENT influence responding?

answer

subject will adapt and realize that the reward will not be given each time which causes an uneven rate of response

question

POSITIVE PUNISHMENT

answer

administering an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus (usually after undesirable behavior) ex: spanking

question

NEGATIVE PUNISHMENT

answer

removing a pleasant stimulus (usually after undesirable behavior) ex: take away toys

question

What are the undesirable side effects of punishment? What is the main problem with punishment?

answer

Punishment doesn't always change the behavior and can cause a negative emotional fallout.

question

Is POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT or PUNISHMENT better?

answer

POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT

question

OVER-JUSTIFICATION EFFECT

answer

the effect of promising a reward for doing something a person already likes to do, often with the result that, once the reward is removed, the subject enjoys and engages in the activity less than if the subject had never been rewarded at all

question

OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING

answer

learning by observing others

question

ALBERT BANDURA

answer

studied OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING

question

What was ALBERT BANDURA's famous experiment?

answer

1.Brought kids in and had them doing an art project on one side of the room while the teacher did something on the other side of the room. The teacher would get frustrated and beat a voodoo doll. 2. Took kid into a second room and didn't let him play with the good toys long. 3. Removed the child from the room and placed him in a room with no good toys and a voodoo doll 4. He played with the doll in the same way he saw the teacher play with/beat it.

question

PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR

answer

Behavior that benefits someone else or society but that generally offers no obvious benefit to the person performing it and may even involve some personal risk or sacrifice.

question

How are children most likely to respond when parents hypocritically say one thing but do another?

answer

kids will do what parents do, not what they say.

question

MEMORY

answer

the persistent of learning over time, through storage and retrieval of information

question

Three elements of informational processing?

answer

1. Encoding 2. Storage 3. Retrieval

question

ENCODING

answer

the processing of information into the memory system

question

STORAGE

answer

the retention of encoded information over time

question

RETRIEVAL

answer

the process of getting information out of memory storage

question

THREE STAGE PROCESSING MODEL OF MEMORY

answer

1. sensory memory 2. short-term memory 3. long-term memory

question

SENSORY MEMORY

answer

the immediate and very brief initial recording of information in the memory system by the sense organs

question

SHORT-TERM MEMORY

answer

memory of limited capacity that holds a few items briefly, before the information is either stored or forgotten

question

LONG-TERM MEMORY

answer

your relatively permanent store of memories, with virtually unlimited capacity

question

WORKING MEMORY

answer

a newer conceptualization of the classic three-stage model, especially with respect to the second stage: an active, conscious processing of selected incoming information and also relevant information retrieved from long-term memory, on a temporary basis to perform some mental task until the result is either discarded or processed into long-term memory

question

EFFORTFUL PROCESSING

answer

encoding that requires conscious attention/effort/study

question

EXPLICIT (DECLARATIVE) MEMORY

answer

memory for facts and experiences that you can consciously recall and declare (put into words)

question

AUTOMATIC PROCESSING

answer

encoding routine information without conscious effort or attention, including such things as space, time, and frequency, and also well-learned information, such as word meanings, conditioning, and motor and cognitive skills

question

IMPLICIT (NON-DECLARATIVE) MEMORY

answer

retention of information independent of (that does not require) conscious recollection

question

How might memory processing be diagrammed?

answer

MEMORY PROCESSING: OUR TWO MEMORY SYSTEMS AUTOMATIC EFFORTFUL IMPLICIT MEMORIES EXPLICIT MEMORIES without conscious recall with conscious recall -processed in cerebellum -processed in hippocampus and basal ganglia and frontal lobes 1. space, 2. motor& 3.classical 1. facts& 2. personally time, cognitive conditioning general experienced frequency skills knowledge events

question

who is EBBINGHAUS?

answer

very influential researcher in memory

question

What are some things EBBINGHAUS and more recent generations of memory researchers discovered about what helps us learn material and get it into our long-term memory

answer

-making material meaningful -incorporating visual imagery -chunking (organizing items into familiar, manageable units) -mnemonics (memory aids, often incorporating partial reminders or visual images) -relating the material to something you already know -relating it to yourself -spacing study out over time -self assessment (the testing effect: enhanced memory after retrieving information afterwards instead of simply reading it and moving on) -sleep

question

SERIAL POSITION EFFECT

answer

the tendency to recall the last and first items on a list or series the best: immediately following the learning, the last items tend to be recalled the best, but later on, the first items tend to be recalled the best; but at all ties, the items in the middle tend to be recalled the least well

question

What is the typical duration and capacity of items in short-term memory?

answer

very limited capacity; only about 7 items can be stored at a time in short term memory and they only stay about thirty seconds "magical number seven plus or minus two"

question

Do we run out of room in our long term memory?

answer

no, it has an unlimited capacity

question

LONG TERM POTENTIATION

answer

an increase in a neuron's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation (during learning and recall)

question

What important principle did EBBINGHAUS learn long ago about our long-term memories? Why is this fact important?

answer

Actual memories are not whole. We remember parts and our brain fills in the rest.

question

Why are we particularly likely to remember stressful or exciting events?

answer

Our bodies release large amounts of hormones when we are in an exciting situation and make it more likely to form long term memories.

question

FLASHBULB MEMORY

answer

a clear, vivid memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

question

How accurate is FLASHBULB MEMORY?

answer

not completely accurate

question

AMNESIA

answer

the loss of memory or the failure to remember an experience

question

What are the two general forms of AMNESIA?

answer

1. RETROGRADE AMNESIA 2. ANTEROGRADE AMNESIA

question

RETROGRADE AMNESIA

answer

an inability to retrieve past information

question

ANTEROGRADE AMNESIA

answer

an inability to form new memories

question

What are the three signs that something has been learned or retained?

answer

1. RECALL 2. RECOGNITION 3. RELEARNING

question

RECALL

answer

retrieving information that was learned earlier

question

RECOGNITION

answer

identifying items that are previously learned

question

RELEARNING

answer

learning something a second time faster than when the material was originally learned

question

PRIMING

answer

the activation of particular associations in memory, by remembering the right retrieval cues; the associations can also be unconscious ones

question

CONTEXT EFFECTS (CONTEXT-DEPENDENT MEMORY)

answer

the tendency to remember things better in the same context as you learned them (same situation, etc.)

question

MOOD-CONGRUENT MEMORY

answer

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current mood -when you're depressed, you'll remember the bad stuff you did

question

What are the three general causes of forgetting?

answer

1. failure to encode information (put it into memory) 2. failure to store information (retain it in memory) 3. failure to retrieve information (recall it from memory)

question

EBBINGHAUS'S FORGETTING CURVE

answer

If he had people try to learn something, theres a moment when they know it all, but then their knowledge decreases. After the initial drop, the amour of retained information levels out. We're going to forget a lot, but what we forget is usually forgotten quickly.

question

REPRESSION

answer

"motivated forgetting" in which very uncomfortable thoughts, feelings, impulses, and/or memories are kept out of our conscious awareness

question

Who originated REPRESSION?

answer

SIGMUND FREUD

question

Do most people in general believe repression occurs?

answer

It does not happen very often. "MOSTLY a myth."

question

RECOVERY MEMORY

answer

"I had repressed it, but now i remember it" RARELY ACCURATE Most recovered memories are FALSE memories

question

MISINFORMATION EFFECT

answer

that misleading information can be incorporated into your memory for an event; in effect, that new inputs can significantly change old existing memories, without your awareness that your memories have changed "As we experience new things, we change and don't realize it."

question

ELIZABETH LOFTUS

answer

modern memory researcher who identified MISINFORMATION EFFECTS.

question

How did LOFTUS demonstrate the misinformation effect in a classic study involving a film of a traffic accident?

answer

she showed a traffic accident to her class -half the class is asked to estimate the speed of the cars when they were traveling -the other half were asked how fast the cars were going when they smashed into each other -the term "smashed" caused them to guess higher -then later asked the whole class if there was glass on the scene of the accident -the "smashed" question students were more likely to say yes -the question itself is a misinformation effect

question

How reliable is an eyewitness memory?

answer

not reliable because of the misinformation effect

question

SOURCE AMNESIA

answer

when we attribute events we have experienced, heard or read about, or imagined, to the wrong source, such as believing that we actually experienced something we only heard about or imagined

question

How do out attitudes lead to memory reconstruction?

answer

If we have a certain attitude we tend to remember things in a way that line up with that attitude. ex: racism- we say now that we are against racism and always have been when in reality the majority of MS was pro-racism at some point

question

ROSY RETROSPECTION

answer

the tendency to remember past events more positively than we actually evaluated them at the time that they happened ex: "college was amazing, i want to go back."-40 yr. old "this is terrible, im ready to be done."-college student

question

How good is our memory of our own conversations?

answer

lousy. we don't remember conversations at all or we remember conversations that never even happened

question

What is it vitally important that we remember about memory?

answer

we trust our memory more than we ought to

General Psychology Unit 2- Carskadon – Flashcards

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