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1.How people think about themselves and the social world. 2. How people select, interpret, remember, and use social information to make judgements and decisions. 3. People are generally trying to form accurate impressions of the world 4. 2 kinds= automatic thinking and controlled thinking *central topic in social psychology*

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social cognition

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automatic thinking and controlled thinking

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types of social cognition

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1. non-conscious,unintentional, involuntary, effortless 2. quick 3. no conscious deliberation of thoughts, perceptions, or assumptions 4. *critical to navigating our way through the world ex: cocktail party effect* ex: we form impressions about people quick so we don't form a new impression and take 15minutes every time we meet someone new

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automatic thinking

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1. conscious, intentional, voluntary, effortful, deliberate 2. thinking about self and environment 3. carefully selecting the right course of action

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controlled thinking

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1. we often size up a new situation very quickly 2. often, but not always, these quick conclusions are correct 3. we engage in an automatic analysis of our environment based on *past experiences and knowledge of the world*

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automatic pilot (low-effort thinking)

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1. the mental structures people use to organize their knowledge about the social world around themes or subjects 2. contain our basic knowledge, categories 3. relate new information to past experiences 4. they influence the information people notice, think about, and remember

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schema

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1. organize what we know 2. reduce information, make sense, and fill in gaps (not always correctly) 3. interpret new situations 4. helpful in confusing situations 5. the more ambiguous the situation, the more we use these 6. over time they become strong, more resistant to change 7. can be applied rapidly and automatically when we encounter other people

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schema uses

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when schemas are applied to members of a social group such as a fraternity, gender, or race

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stereotypes

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people who read a story about a marriage proposal can later insert incorrect details that were not in the story (future plans, roses) but they are details consistent with a marriage proposal schema

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schema memory reconstructions

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accessibility and priming

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schemas that are applied

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the extend to which schemas and concepts are at the forefront of people's minds, therefore likely to be used when making judgements about the social world

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accessibility

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the process by which recent experiences increase the accessibility of a schema, trait, or concept *good example of automatic thinking bc it occurs quickly, unintentionally, and unconsciously*

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priming

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1. chronically accessible due to past experience: constantly active, ready 2. accessible bc it is related to a current goal: temporarily accessible ex: able to identify a mental illness because it's topic of research paper 3. temporarily accessible bc of our recent experience (something just experience, book just read)

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3 accessible reasons

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1. Have an expectation about what another person is like, which; 2. Influences how they act toward that person, which; 3. Causes that person to behave consistently with people's original expectations, making the expectations come true. 4. Difficult to change because people underestimate their own role in creating the situation.

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self-fulfilling prophecy

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people's true nature can win out in social interaction, and they are most likely to occur when people are distracted

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self-fulfilling prophecy limits

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physical sensations can make this happen and can influence decisions; holding hot coffee or iced coffee when encountering a stranger

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prime metaphors

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→ Primes "warm & friendly" metaphor, stranger rated as friendly *prime metaphors*

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hot coffee

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→ Primes "unfriendly people are cold", stranger as unfriendly *prime metaphors*

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iced coffee

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1. efficient-allows us to "get on with our lives" we don't usually have time to fully search all options 2. usually lead to good decisions quickly 3. schemas 4. when schemas don't work, use judgmental heuristics 5. availability heuristics 6. representativeness heuristics

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mental shortcuts

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1. we don't have a ready-made schema for every judgment or decision 2. sometimes there are too many schemas available that fit /ex: blonde tan guy looks californian but also has a high chance of being from New York/

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schema mental shortcut limits

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1. Mental shortcuts people use to make judgments quickly and efficiently 2. A mental rule of thumb whereby people base a judgment on the ease with which they can bring something to mind. 3. but sometimes what is easiest to remember is not typical of the overall picture, leading to faulty conclusions

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judgmental heuristics

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People base a judgment on the ease with which they can bring something (experience) to mind.

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availability heuristic

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A mental shortcut whereby people classify something according to how similar it is to a typical case

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representativeness heuristic

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information about the frequency of members of different categories in the population

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base rate information

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all people have schemas [cultural differences are in the *content* of schemas]

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cultural universal

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1. focus on *objects* without considering the surrounding context 2. associated with *Western* cultures

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analytic thinking style

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the phenomenon of being able to focus one's auditory attention on a particular stimulus while filtering out a range of other stimuli, much the same way that a partygoer can focus on a single conversation in a noisy room /ex: not turning around every time you hear your name talked about in another conversation/

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cocktail party effect

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1. focus on *the overall context*, relationship between objects 2. associated with *Eastern* cultures

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holistic thinking style

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1. controlled thinking 2. association between conscious thought and behavior creates perception of free will 3. BUT, forces outside of awareness may influence behavior and conscious thoughts (may overestimate or underestimate amount of control) 4. belief in free will predicts behavior

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controlled social cognition (high effort thinking)

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1. mentally undoing the past 2. mentally changing some aspect of the past in imagining what might have been ex: "If only I had answered that one question differently, I would have passed the test" 3. the easier it is to mentally undo an outcome, the stronger the emotional reaction to it (losing first place by one question)

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counterfactual reasoning

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motivation to improve in future

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counterfactual reasoning positive consequences

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1. can lead to rumination or thought suppression 2. associated with depression

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counterfactual reasoning negative consequences

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repetitive focus on negative things or thoughts

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rumination

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1. make people more humble: often we have more confidence in our judgements than we really should 2. address overconfidence by asking people to consider a point of view other than or even opposite to their own=realize other ways to view world and make fewer judgement errors 3. teach basic statistical principles = facilitates application of principles to everyday life ex: use of base rates

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improve human thinking

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the scientific study of the ways in which people's thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are *influenced* by the real, imagined or implied presence of other people *focuses on the psychological makeup that renders people susceptable to social influence*

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social psychology

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1.attempt to answer questions *scientifically* (empirically) 2. explain social behavior in terms of the *power of the social situation* (as it is construed by the individual) to shape how one acts 3. focus on the individual in the *context* of a social situation

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social psychologists

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the *individual* in the context of a *social situation*, more concerned with how people are influenced by their interpretation (construal) of social environments

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level of analysis

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the way in which people perceive, comprehend, and interpret the social world

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construal

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explain behavior in terms of a person's individual character traits, focus on individual differences

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personality psych

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focus on society as a whole

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sociologists

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identify universal properties of human nature that makes everyone susceptible to social influence, regardless of social class or culture

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goal of social psych

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the effects that the words, actions or mere presence of other people have on our thoughts, feelings, attitudes, or behavior 1. can be direct and/or intentional (peer pressure, advertising) 2. can be indirect and/or unintentional (conformity) 3. can be aimed at behavior and/or attitudes, thoughts, feelings

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social influence

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conformity

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indirect social influence

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peer pressure, advertising, obedience, compliance

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direct social influence

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*German-American psychologist* 1. founding father of modern experimental social psychology 2. applied Gestalt principles to social perception 3. stressed the importance of taking into account the perspective of the people in any social situation to see *how they construe social environment* 4. particular interest in exploring causes of prejudice 5. *social perception* 6. first scientist to fully realize the importance of taking the perspective of the people in a situation

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Kurt Lewin

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how people perceive other people and their motives, intentions, and behaviors *Kurt Lewin*

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social perception

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1. the need to be accepted 2. the need to feel good about ourselves

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basic human motives

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we all think that we see things as they really are. If other people see the same things differently, they're incorrect or biased

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naive realism

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1. a school of psychology stressing the importance of studying the subjective way in which an object appears in people's minds rather than the objective, physical attributes of the object 2. early 20th century

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gestalt psychology

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1. *the need to feel good about ourselves* 2. most people have a strong need to maintain reasonably high self-esteem 3. people will often distort the world in order to feel good about themselves instead of representing the world accuratly

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self-esteem approach

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1. acknowledging major deficiencies in ourselves is very difficult, makes it hard to learn from as experience 2. most people can put a slightly different spin on the existing facts, one that puts them in the best possible light ex: my girlfriend was crazy instead of I messed up

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justifying past behavior

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1. human beings are motivated to maintain a positive picture of themselves, in part by justifying their past behavior 2. under certain conditions, this leads them to do things that at first glance might seem surprising or paradoxical 3. people might prefer people and thing for whom they have suffering to people and things they associate with ease and pleasure /ex: saying a fraternity has really great people because they have went through hazing/

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self-justification

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1. how people think about themselves and the social world 2. how people *select, interpret, remember, and use* social information to make judgments and decisions 3. beings with the assumption that all people try to view the world as accurately as possible 4. views people as "amateur sleuths" doing their best to understand and predict their social world

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social cognition

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our expectations can change the *nature* of the social world ex: experiment where certain students are labeled "bloomers" = teachers treated those students better and so they therefore ended up performing better even thought there was no different

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self-fulfilling prophecy

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the tendency to overestimate the extent to which people's behavior is due to internal, dispositional factors, and to underestimate the role of situational factors

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fundamental attribution error

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1. need to maintain positive view of ourselves (the self-esteem approach) 2. the need to view the world accurately (the social cognition approach)

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major sources of construals

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the tendency to exaggerate prediction of an outcome after knowing that it occurred

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hindsight bias

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1. previous theory 2. previous research 3. based on personal experience and/or observations

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hypotheses derive from

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technique whereby a researcher observes people and systematically records measurements or impressions of their behavior

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observational method

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1. observation 2. ethnography 3. archival

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observational methods

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1. researcher observes people and systematically records measurements of impressions of their behavior 2. *used to describe behavior* 3. behaviors are concretely defined *before* the observation begins 4. accuracy of observer is assessed (inter judge reliability)

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observation

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the level of agreement between two or more people who independently observe and code a set of data

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interjudge reliability

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1. describing a group/culture by observing it *from the inside* 2. no preconceived notions 3. used chiefly by cultural anthropologists 4. used by social psychologists to understand different cultures

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ethnography

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researcher examines accumulated documents (archives) /ex: diaries, magazines, newspapers/

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archival analysis

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1. certain behavior are difficult to observe because they occur rarely and/or in private 2. archival analysis: original may not have all information researchers need and/or contains biases 3. archival analysis: does not allow prediction and explanation: limited to description

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observational method limits

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1. original may not have all information researchers need and/or contains biases 2. does not allow prediction and explanation: limited to description

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archival analysis limits

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two or more variable are systematically measured and the relationship between them is assessed; a method: *surveys* /ex: what is the relationship between the amount of violent television children watch and how aggressive they are? ---> Can I predict how aggressive a child will be knowing how much violent TV they watch?/

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correlational method

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*INCREASES* in the value of one variable are associated with *INCREASES* in the value of the other variable /ex: _MORE_ veggies _INCREASE_ life span ex: _MORE_ smoking leads to _MORE_ lung cancer/

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positive correlation

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*INCREASES* in the value of one variable are associated with *DECREASES* in value of the other variable /ex: _INCREASE_ in height leads to a _DECREASE_ in weight/

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negative correlation

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1. == _r_ 2. they range from -1.00 to +1.00 3.+1.00 perfectly correlated in a positive direction 4. 0 means that two variables are not correlated 5. - 1.00 perfectly correlated in a negative direction

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correlation coefficient

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perfectly correlated in a positive direction

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+1.00

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perfectly correlated in a negative direction

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-1.00

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1. a correlational method 2. representative sample of people asked about attitudes or behavior 3. correlations computed using responses to questions 4. random selection

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surveys

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a way of ensuring that a sample of people is *representative* of a population by giving everyone in the population an equal chance of being selected for the sample

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random selection

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1. investigate relations between variable that are difficult to observe 2. sample representative segments of population

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survey advantage

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people may not know the answer-but they *think* they do

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survey disadvantage

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1. *correlation ≠ causation!* 2. they tell us only that two variable are related 3. doesn't answer social psychology's goal

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correlational method limits

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identify *causes* of social behavior

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social psych goal

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1. researcher randomly assigns participants to different conditions. Conditions are identical except for the independent variable 2. used to answer *casual (fundamental=important)* questions 3. independent and dependent variable 4. *internal validity of experiments*

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experimental method

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what researchers *manipulate* to see if it has a casual effect; the one thought to have a casual effect on people's responses ex: the number of bystanders

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independent variable

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what researchers *measure* to see if it is affected; depends on the ____ variable /ex: whether they tried to help/

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dependent variable

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making sure that nothing besides the independent variable can affect the dependent variable; this is accomplished by *controlling all extraneous variables* and by *randomly assigning people* to different experimental conditions

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internal validity

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1. control extraneous variables 2. randomly assign people to experimental conditions (it distributes differences in participants -personalities, backgrounds-evenly across)

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increase internal validity

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1. p-value 2. a number calculated with statistical techniques 3. indicates the likelihood results of experiment occurred by chances instead of the independent variable 4. the convention in science is to consider results *significant* when = probability is *less* than 5 in 100 that results might be due to chance factors and not the independent variable (p<.05)

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probability level

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probability is *less* than 5 in 100 that results might be due to chance factors and not the independent variable (p<.05)

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consider results significant

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the extent to which the results of a study can be generalized to other situations and to other people *2 types of generalizability: people and situations*

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external validity

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the extent to which an experiment is similar to real-life situations

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mundane realism

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the extent to which psychological processes triggered by experiment are similar to psychological processes in real life; *when people feel involved in a real event, this is increased*

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psychological realism

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repeating a study, often with different subject populations or in different settings *used to investigate generalizability and universality of processes*

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replication

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A statistical technique that averages the results of two or more studies to see if the effect of an independent variable is reliable *used if different experiments yield different results*

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meta-analysis

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the extent to which we can generalize from the experimental situation to real-life situations

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generalizability across situations

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the extent to which we can generalize from the people who participated in the experiment to people in general *INCREASE:* 1. randomly select participants from population 2. cover story = _impractical and expensive_ 3. address by studying basic, fundamental psychological processes that may be universal

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generalizability across people

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1. a description of the purpose of a study, given to participants, that is different from its true purpose, *used to maintain psychological realism* 2. impractical and expensive for most social psychology experiments 3. address by = studying basic, fundamental psychological processes that may be universal

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cover story

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1. people 2. situations

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2 types of generalizability

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these situations can be *artificial* and *distant* from real life

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experimental method limits

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use of field experiments: have it occur in the real world

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improve external validity

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trade-off between internal and external validity -By increasing internal validity, some external validity (generalizability) is sacrificed -By increasing external validity (e.g., a field experiment), control over the setting is lost and internal validity is sacrificed

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social psych basic dilemma

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