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Anatomy

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the study of structure

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Physiology

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the study of function

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Palpation

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feeling a structure with the hands, such as palpating a swollen lymph node

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Auscultation

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listening to the natural sounds made by the body such as heart and lung sounds

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Percussion

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the examiner taps on the body, feels for abnormal resistance, and listens to the emitted sound for signs of abnormalities such as pockets of fluid or air

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Dissection

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carefully cutting and separating tissues to reveal their relationships

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Cadaver

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a dead human body

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Comparative Anatomy

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the study of multiple species in order to examine similarities and differences and analyze evolutionary trends

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Exploratory Surgery

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opening the body and taking a look inside to see what was wrong and what could be done about it

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Medical Imaging Techniques

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methods of viewing the inside of the body without surgery

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Radiology

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the branch of medicine concerned with imaging

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Gross Anatomy

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structure that can be seen with the naked eye, visible without magnification

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Histology (Microscopic Anatomy)

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taking tissue specimens, thinly slice and stain them, and observe them under the microscope

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Histopathology

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microscopic examination of tissues for signs of disease

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Cytology

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study of the structure and function of individual cells

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Ultrastructure

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refers to fine detail, down to the molecular level, revealed by the electron microscope

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Inspection

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simply looking at the body's appearance, as performing a physical examination or making a clinical diagnosis from surface appearance

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Comparative Physiology

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study of how different species have solved problems of life such as water balance, respiration, and reproduction

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What is the difference between anatomy and physiology? How do these two sciences support each other?

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Anatomy: study of structure Physiology: study of form "unity of form and function" physiology lends meaning to anatomy, and anatomy is what makes physiology possible

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Listening to a patient for a heart murmur

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auscultation

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Studying the microscopic structure of the liver

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histology

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Microscopically examining the liver tissue for signs of hepatitis

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histopathology

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Learning the blood vessels of a cadaver

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cytology

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Performing a breast self-examination

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palpation

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Hippocrates

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"father of medicine"

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Aristotle

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first philosophers to write about anatomy and physiology

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Claudius Galen

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physician to the Roman gladiators, wrote the most influential medical textbook of the ancient era

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Andreas Vesalius (Anatomy)

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first professor to come down from the cathedra and doing the dissection himself-- Gray's Anatomy

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William Harvey (Physiology)

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first known to describe completely and in detail the systematic circulation and properties of blood being pumped to the brain and body by the heart

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Maimonides

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Jewish physician

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Avicenna

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"The Galen of Islam"

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Michael Servetus

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he and Harvey were the first to realize that blood must circulate continuously around the body

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Robert Hooke

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designed the compound microscope

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Antony van Leeuwenhoek

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invented a simple microscope, originally for the purpose of examining the weave of fabrics

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Surface Anatomy

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structure visible without dissection; external anatomy

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Radiologic Anatomy

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internal structure made visible by X-ray, MRI, and other technological methods

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Systematic Anatomy

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study of individual organ systems

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Regional Anatomy

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study of the relationships of organs of multiple systems within a given body region

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Computed Tomography (CT) Scan

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has virtually eliminated exploratory surgery; sharp 3-D image with little overlap; used to identify tumors, aneurysms, cerebral hemorrhages, kidney stones, and other abnormalities

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Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

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"see" clearly through the skull and spinal column to produce images of the nervous tissue; disadvantage is it requires patient to lay still for up to 45 minutes to scan one region

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Sex in the MRI

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Schultz, WW, P van Andel, I Sabelis and E Mooyar. Magnetic resonance imaging of male and female genitals during coitus and female sexual response

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Positron Emission Tomography (PET) scan

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used to assess the metabolic state of a tissue and distinguish which tissues are most active at a given moment

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Sonography (Ultrasound)

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used obstetrics (fetal ultrasound) and echocardiogram (motion of the heart wall and valves and blood flow through the heart chambers

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Hypothetico-Deductive Method

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1. question about nature 2. hypothesis 3. an if-then deduction 4. experimental design (control group, placebo, double-blind method) 5. results (data) 6. statistical tests (significance of data) 7. peer review 8. publication 9. corroboration (by labs replicating the study)

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Fact

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item of information verifiable by independent observers

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Law

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verbal or mathematical description of predictable events in nature

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Theory

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explanatory statement or set of statements that summarizes what we know so far about how something works

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Evolution

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a change in genetic composition of a population over time

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Natural Selection

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individuals having hereditary advantages over their competition enabling them to produce more offspring, passing those traits to the next generation

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Selection Pressures

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forces of nature that favor the reproductive success of some individuals over others

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Adaptations

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features of anatomy, physiology, or behavior that evolve in response to selection pressures

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Walter Cannon

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homeostasis and fight or flight

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Homeostasis

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stable internal environment even when the environment around us is changing

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Thermoregulation

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hypothalamic thermostat--neurons that regulate temperature

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Vasoconstriction

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keeping warm blood deeper in the body

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Negative Feedback Loop

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1. a receptor detects change in the body 2. an integrating center processes this information and "makes a decision" on how to respond 3. sends a signal to an effector that carries out the response 4. the response reverses the change that was originally detected, completing the negative feedback loop

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Positive Feedback in Childbirth

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detects a change and intensifies it; drives body further away from homeostasis stability 1. cervical stretching 2. signal via spinal cord to brain 3. oxytocin secretion 4. uterine (labor) contraction 5. more cervical stretching

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Positive Feedback in Fever

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above a certain point, body generates heat faster than it can get rid of it-- heat raises metabolic rate; elevated metabolic rate generates more heat

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Gradients and Flow

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Pressure: blood flow and air flow Concentration: chemical diffusion Electrochemical: Ion flow (nerve, muscle) Thermal: heat exchange (testes, skin, brain)

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Magnus

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larger

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Major

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larger

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Maximus

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largest

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Theodor Schwann

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concluded that all organisms were composed of cells--became the first tenant of cell theory

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In what way did the followers of Galen disregard his advice? How does Galen's advice apply to you and this book?

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his followers taught straight from his book and didn't question his authority; his advice applies to me and this book because I may observe something in another way than how Saladin did

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Describe two ways in which Vesalius improved medical education and set standards that remain relevant today

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He pointed out that Galen's book was wrong and wrote his own atlas of anatomy and has been handed down to us by Gray's Anatomy and the vividly illustrated atlases and textbooks of today

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How is our concept of human form and function today affected by inventors from the seventeenth to the nineteenth century?

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They helped replace superstition with an appreciation of natural law and they bridged chasm between mystery and medication. Without this intellectual revolution, those who followed could not have conceived of the right questions to ask, much less a method for answering them.

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Francis Bacon (England) and Rene Descartes (France)

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envisioned science as a far greater, systematic enterprise with enormous possibilities for human health and welfare--credited with putting science on the path to modernity by inventing new habits of scientific thought (scientific method)

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Scientific Method

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refers less to observational procedures than to certain habits of disciplined creativity, careful observation, logical thinking, and honest analysis of one's observations and conclusions

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Inductive Method

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first prescribed by Bacon, a process of making numerous observations until one feels confident drawing generalizations and predictions from them

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Falsifiability

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that if we claim something is scientifically true, we must be able to specify what evidence it would take to prove it wrong

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Psychosomatic Effects

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effects of the subject's state of mind on his or her physiology

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Statistical Tests

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can be applied to the date

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Peer review

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a critical evaluation by other experts in that field on a submission of results for publication

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Law of complementary base pairing

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A-T G-C

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Charles Darwin

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most influential biologist who ever lived-- natural selection

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Adaptations

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features of anatomy, physiology, and behavior that have evolved in response to these selection pressures and enable the organism to cope with challenges of its environment

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Model

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an animal species or strain selected for research on a particular problem

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Arboreal

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(tree top) habitat probably afforded greater safety from predators, less competition, and rich food supply of leaves, fruit, insects, and lizards

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Prehensile

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made the hands able to grasp branches by encircling them with the thumb and fingers

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Stereoscopic

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(depth perception) provided better hand-eye coordination in catching and manipulating prey, with the added advantage of making it easier to judge distances

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Bipedalism

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walking on two legs

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Australopithecus

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genus in which most of the oldest bipedal primates are classified

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Homo sapiens

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our own species, originated in Africa about 200,000 years ago and is the sole surviving hominid species

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Evolutionary Medicine

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analyzes how human disease and dysfunctions can be traced to differences between the artificial environment in which we now live, and the prehistoric environment to which Homo sapiens was biologically adapted

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Organism

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single, complete individual

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Organ System

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group of organs with a unique collective function, such as circulation, respiration, or digestion

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Organ

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structure composed of two or more tissue types that work together to carry out a particular function

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Tissue

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a mass of similar cells and cell products that forms a discrete region of an organ and performs a specific function

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Cells

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the smallest units of an organism that carry out all basic functions of life

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Organelles

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microscopic structures in a cell that carry out its individual functions

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Molecule

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a particle composed of at least two atoms

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Macromolecules

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largest molecules such as proteins, fats, and DNA

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Reductionism

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theory that a large, complex system such as the human body can be understood by studying its simpler components

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Holism

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complementary theory that are "emergent properties" of the whole organism that can't be predicted from the properties of its separate parts--human beings are more than the sum of their parts

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Organization

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living things exhibit a far higher level of organization than the nonliving world around them

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Cellular Composition

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living matter is always compartmentalized into one or more cells

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Metabolism

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the sum of all this internal chemical change

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Anabolism

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relatively complex molecules are synthesized from smaller ones

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Catabolism

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relatively complex molecules are broken down into simper ones

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Excretion

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separation of wastes from the tissues and their elimination from the body

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Responsiveness, irritability, or excitability

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the ability of organisms to sense and react to stimuli (changes in their environment)

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Development

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differentiation- transformation of cells with no specialized function into cells that are committed to a particular task growth- an increase in size

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Reproduction

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all living organisms can produce copies of themselves, thus passing their genes onto their offspring

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Mutations

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changes in DNA structure

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Claude Bernard

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observed that the internal conditions of the body remain quite constant even when external conditions vary greatly

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Dynamic equilibrium

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balanced change

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Set Point

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average value for a given variable

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Vasodilation

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the widening of blood vessels to lose heat

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Receptor

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structure that senses change in the body

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Integrating (control) center

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processes this information, relates it to other information, and "makes a decision"

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Effector

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cell or organ that catties out the final corrective action

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Down the gradient

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when matter or energy moves from higher to lower

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Up the gradient

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when matter or energy moves from lower to higher

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Gradient

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difference in chemical concentration, electrical charge, physical pressure, temperature, or other variable between one point to the other

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Pressure gradient

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high pressure point to low pressure point

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Concentration gradient

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where chemicals flow

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Electrical gradient

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where charged particles flow

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Thermal gradient

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where heat flows

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Eponyms

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afford little clue as to what a structure or condition is

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Cell theory

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all structure and function result from the activity of cells

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Hierarchy of complexity

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human structure can be viewed as a series of levels of complexity

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