MGMT301-Exam3(Brower): Book Material – Flashcards
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Leadership
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I. As a process: the use of non-coercive influence to shape the group's or organization's goals, motivate behavior toward the achievement of those goals, and help define group or organizational culture II. As a property: the set of characteristics attributed to individuals who are perceived to be leaders
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Leaders
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People who can influence the behaviors of other without having to rely on force; those accepted by others as leaders
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Management vs. Leadership
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-Management and leadership are related, but distinct, constructs -Managers and leaders differ in how they: I. Create an agenda II. Develop a rationale for achieving the agenda III. Execute plans IV. types of outcomes they achieve
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Creating an agenda (Management):
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Planning and Budgeting: -Establishing detailed steps and timetables for achieving needed results -Allocating the resources necessary to make those needed results happen
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Creating an agenda (Leadership):
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Establishing Direction: -Developing a vision of the future (often distant future), and strategies for producing the changes needed to achieve that vision
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Develop a Human Network for Achieving the Agenda (Management):
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Organizing and Staffing: -Establishing some structure for accomplishing plan requirements -Staffing that structure w/ individuals -Delegating responsibility and authority for carrying out the plan -Providing policies and procedures to help guide people -Creating methods or systems to monitor implementation
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Develop a Human Network for Achieving the Agenda (Leadership):
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Aligning People: -Communicating the direction by words and deeds to everyone whose cooperation may be needed to influence the creation of teams and coalitions that understand the visions and strategies and accept their validity
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Executing Plans (Management):
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Controlling and Problem Solving: -Monitoring results vs. Planning in some detail -Identifying deviations -Then planning and organizing to solve these problems
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Executing Plans (Leadership):
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Motivating and Inspiring: -Energizing people to overcome major political, bureaucratic, and resource barriers by satisfying very basic, but not often unfulfilled, human needs
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Outcomes (Management):
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-Produces a degree of predictability and order -Has the potential to produce consistently major results expected by various stakeholders Ex. Customers- always being on time Ex. Stockholders- being on budget
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Outcomes (Leadership):
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-Produces change (often to a dramatic degree) -Has the potential to produce extremely useful change Ex. New products that customers want Ex. New approaches to labor relations that help make a firm more competitive
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Power
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The ability to affect the behavior of others
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(5)Types of Power
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1. Legitimate 2. Reward 3. Coercive 4. Referent 5. Expect Power
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Legitimate power
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-Power granted through the organizational hierarchy -The power defined by the organization to be accorded to people occupying particular positions -Authority Ex. A subordinate who refuses to do a task, assigned by a manager, can be reprimanded or even fired [Relatively concrete and grounded in objective facets of organizational life]
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Reward Power
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The power to give or withhold rewards, such as salary increases, bonuses, promotions, praise, recognition, and interesting job assignments -In general, the greater the number of rewards the manager controls and the more important the rewards are to subordinates, the greater is the manager's reward power -If the subordinate also wants and appreciate the manager's informal rewards (praise, gratitude, and recognitions), then the manager is also exercising leadership [Relatively concrete and grounded in objective facets of organizational life]
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Coercive Power
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The power to force compliance by means of psychological, emotional, or physical threat -In most organizations today, coercion is limited to: verbal reprimands, written reprimands, disciplinary layoffs, fines, demotion, and termination -The more a manager uses coercive power, the less likely he is to provoke resentment and hostility and the less likely he is to be seen as a leader [Relatively concrete and grounded in objective facets of organizational life]
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Referent Power
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The personal power that accrues to someone based on identification, imitation, loyalty, or charisma (an intangible attribute of the leader that inspires loyalty and enthusiasm) -Thus a manager might have referent power, but it is more likely to be associated w/ leadership
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Expert Power
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The personal power that accrues to someone based on the information or expertise that they possess -Derived from information and expertise -The more important the information and the fever people who have access to it, the greater is the degree of expert power possessed by any one individual -In general, people who are both leaders and mangers tend to have a lot of expert power
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(7)Methods for Using Power
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I. Legitimate Request II. Instrumental Compliance III. Coercion IV. Rational Persuasion V. Personal identification VI. Inspirational Appeal VII. Information distortion
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Legitimate Request
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-Based on legitimate power -Most day-to-day interactions between manager and subordinate are of this type Ex. The manager requests that the subordinate comply because the subordinate recognizes that the organization has given the manager the right to make the request
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Instrumental Compliance
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-Based on the reinforcement theory of motivation -In this form of exchange, a subordinate complies to get the reward the manager controls Ex. Suppose that a manager asks a subordinate to do something outside the range of the subordinate's normal duties (working extra hours on the weekend, terminating a relationship with a long-standing buyer, or delivering bad news). The subordinate complies and, as a direct results, reaps praise and a bonus from the manager. The next time the subordinate is asked to perform a similar activity, that subordinate will recognize that compliance will be instrumental in his or her getting more rewards -Hence the basis of instrumental compliance is clarifying important performance-reward contingencies
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Coercion
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A manager is using coercion when she suggests or implies that the subordinate will be punished, fired, or reprimanded if he does not do something
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Rational Persuasion
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Occurs when the manager can convince the subordinate that compliance is in the subordinate's best interests Ex. A manager might argue that the subordinate should accept a transfer because it would be good for the subordinate's career
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Personal Identification
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A manager who recognizes that she has referent power over a subordinate can shape the behavior of that subordinate by engaging in desired behaviors: The manager consciously becomes a model for the subordinate and exploits personal identification
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Inspirational Appeal
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Sometimes a manager can induce a subordinate to do something consistent with a set of higher ideals or values through inspirational appeal Ex. A plea for loyalty represents an inspirational appeal -Referent power plays a role in determining the extent to which an inspirational appeal is successful because its effectiveness depends at least in part on the persuasive abilities of the leader
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Information distortion
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-Dubious method of using power -The manager withholds or distorts information to influence subordinate's behavior Ex. If a manger has agreed to allow everyone to participate in choosing a new group member but subsequently finds one individual whom she really prefers, she might withhold some of the credentials of other qualified applicants so that the desired member is selected -This use of power is dangerous -May be unethical, and if subordinates find out the manager has deliberately mislead them, they will lose their confidence and trust in that manager's leadership
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Michigan Studies
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Researchers at the University of Michigan, led by Renis Likert, began studying leadership in the late 1940s. Based on extensive interview w/ both leaders (managers) and followers (subordinates), this research identified two basic forms of leader behavior: 1. Job centered [System 1/Rigid/Bureaucratic] 2. Employee Centered [System 4/Organic/Flexible] -Presumed to be at the ends of a single continuum -When Likert advocates moving organizations from System 1 to System 4, he is also advocating a transition from job-centered to employee-centered leader behavior
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Job-Centered Leader Behavior
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The behavior of leaders who pay close attention to the job and work procedures involved with that job -Consistent w/ the System 1 design -Rigid and Bureaucratic
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Employee-Centered Leader Behavior
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The behavior of leaders who develop cohesive work groups and ensure employee satisfaction -Primary concern is the welfare of subordinates -Tends to be more effective -Consistent w/ System 4 design -Organic and Flexible
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Ohio State Studies
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Extensive questionnaire surveys conducted also suggested that there are two basic leader behaviors or styles: 1. Initiating-Structure Behavior 2. Consideration Behavior
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Initiating-Structure Behavior
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The behavior of leaders who define the leader-subordinate role so that everyone knows what is expected, establish formal lines of communication, and determine how tasks will be performed -Major difference btw Mich. and Ohio is that the Ohio State researchers did not interpret leader behavior as being one-dimensional; each behavior was assumed to be independent of the other -A leader could exhibit varying levels of initiating structure and at the same time varying levels of consideration
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Consideration Behavior
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The behavior of leaders who show concern for subordinates and attempt to establish a warm, friendly, and supportive climate
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Managerial Grid ("Leadership Grid") [ADD PHOTO]
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Provides a means for evaluating leadership styles and then training managers to move toward an ideal style of behavior -Horizontal Axis: Concern for Production -Vertical Axis: Concern for People -5 Extremes: (1,1): Impoverished Management (exhibits minimal concern for both production and people) (9,1): Authority-Compliance (highly concerned about production but exhibits little concern for people) (1,9): Country Club Management (little concern about production, High concern for people) (55): Middle-of-the-road Management (maintains adequate concern for both people and production (9,9): Team Management (exhibits maximum concern for both people and production) -The Leadership Grid is a method of evaluating leadership styles -Overall objective of an organization using the Grid is to train its managers using organization development techniques so that they are simultaneously more concerned fro both people and production (9,9 style on the Grid)
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Concern for Production
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The part of the Managerial Grid that deals with job and task aspects of leader behavior
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Concern for People
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The part of the Managerial Grid that deals with the human aspects of leader behavior
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(1,1) Impoverished Management
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Exertion of minimum effort to get required work done is appropriate to sustain organization membership
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(9,1) Authority-Compliance Management
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Efficiency in operations results from arranging conditions of work in such a way that human elements interfere to a minimum degree
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(1,9) Country Club Management
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Thoughtful attention to the needs of the people for satisfying relationships leads to a comfortable, friendly organization atmosphere and work tempo
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(5,5) Middle of the Road Management
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Adequate organization performance is possible through balancing the necessity to get work out while maintaining morale of people at a satisfactory level
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(9,9) Team Management
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Work accomplishment is from committed people; interdependence through a "common stake" in organization purpose leads to relationships of trust and respect -Ideal style of managerial behavior
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Situational Approaches to Leadership
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Situational models assume that appropriate leader behavior varies from one situation to another -Goal: to identify key situational factors and to specify how they interact to determine appropriate leader behavior
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Tannenbaum and Schmidt's Leadership Continuum
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A 1958 study of the decision-making process by Robert Tannebaum and Warren H. Schmidt that proposed a continuum of leadership behavior -The Tannenbaum and Schmidt leadership continuum was an important precursor to modern situational approaches to leadership -The continuum identifies seven levels of leadership, which range between the extremes of boss-centered (like job-centered) and subordinate-centered leadership (like employee-centered) -Identified several intermediate behaviors that a manager might consider: [Use of Authority by Manager Area of Freedom for Subordinates] -Manager makes decision and announces it -Manager "sells" decision -Manager presents ideas and invites questions -Manager presents tentative decision subject to change -Manager presents problem, gets suggestions, makes decision -Manager defines limits, asks group to make decision -Manager permits subordinates to function within limits defined by superior
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Tannenbaum and Schmidt's Leadership Continuum (Continued) [ADD PHOTO]
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This continuum of behavior moves from one extreme (having the manager make the decision alone), to the other extreme (having the employees make the decision with minimal guidance -Each point on the continuum is influenced by 3 characteristics: 1. Managerial Characteristics 2. Subordinate Characteristics 3. Situational Characteristics
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Managerial Characteristics
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I. Manager's value system II. Confidence in subordinates III. Personal inclinations IV. Feelings of security
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Subordinate Characteristics
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I. Need for independence II. Readiness to assume responsibility III. Tolerance for ambiguity IV. Interest in the problem V. Understanding of goals, knowledge, experience, and expectations
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Situational Characteristics
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I. Type of organization II. Group effectiveness III. The problem itself IV. Time pressures
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(4) Important Situational Theories
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1. LPC Theory 2. Path-Goal Theory 3. Vroom's Decision Tree Approach 4. Leader-Member Exchange Approach
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LPC Theory ("Least-Preferred Coworker")
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A theory of leadership that suggests that the appropriate style of leadership varies with situational favorableness -Fred Fiedler began w/ a combined trait and behavioral approach, and identified two styles of leadership: 1. Task Oriented (analogous to job-centered and initiating-structure behavior) 2. Relationship Oriented (similar to employee-centered and consideration behavior) -Argued the style of behavior is a reflection of the leader's personality and that most personalities fall into one of his two categories (task oriented or relationship oriented by nature) -Measures leadership style by means of a controversial questionnaire called the least-preferred Coworker (LPC) measure
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Least-Preferred Coworker (LPC) Measure
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The measuring scale that asks leaders to describe the person with whom he or she is able to work least with -the LPC-by filling in a set of 16 scales anchored at each end by a positive or negative adjective -Positive Qualities (High Numbers): helpful, relaxed, and interesting -Negative Qualities (Low Point Values): frustrating, tense, and boring -High Total Score - Relationship oriented -Low Total Score - Task oriented
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Favorableness of the Situation (LPC Theory) [ADD PHOTO]
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-Key situational factor is the favorableness of the situation from the leader's point of view -This factor is determined by: a. Leader-member relations b. Task Structure c. Position Power
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Leader-Member relations
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Refer to the nature of the relationship between the leader and the work group Ex.) If the leader and the group have a high degree of mutual trust, respect, and confidence, and if they like one another, relations are assumed to be good
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Task Structure
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Degree to which the group's task is well defined -Task is structured when: a. Routine b. Easily understood c. Unambiguous d. When the group has standard procedures and precedents to rely on -Task is unstructured when (Exact opposite) Ex.) IF the task is unstructured, the group will not know what to do, and the leader will have to play a major role in guiding and directing its activities IF the task is structured, the leader will not have to get so involved and can devote time to non-supervisory activities
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Position Power
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The power vested in the leader's position -Strong position power is when the leader has the power to assign work and to reward and punish employees -Weak position power is when the leader must get job assignments approved by someone else and does not administer rewards and punishment (more difficult to accomplish goals) -NOT as important as task structure and leader-member relations
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Favorableness and Leader Style
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-Fiedler and associates conducted numerous studies linking the favorableness of various situations to leader style and the effectiveness of the group -Fiedler's LPC theory of leadership suggests that appropriate leader behavior varies as a function of the favorableness of the situation. -Favorableness, in turn, is defined by task structure, leader-member relations, and the leader's position power -According to LPC theory, the most and least favorable situations call for task-oriented leadership, whereas moderately favorable situations suggest the need for relationship-oriented leadership
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Flexibility of Leader Style
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For any given individual, leader style is essentially fixed and cannot be changed; leaders cannot change thier behavior to fit a particular situation because it is linked to their particular personality traits -When a leader's style and the situation do not match, Fiedler argued that the situation should be changed to fit the leader's style -According to Fiedler, the leader can make the elements of the situation more congruent by structuring the task (by developing guidelines and procedures) and increasing power (by requesting additional authority or by other means)
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Path-Goal Theory
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A theory of leadership suggesting that the primary functions of a leader are to make valued or desired rewards available in the workplace and to clarify for the subordinates the kinds of behavior that will lead to those rewards (leader should clarify the paths to goal attainment) -Martin Evans and Robert House -Direct extension of the expectancy theory of motivation [Recall that the primary components of expectancy theory include the likelihood of attaining various outcomes and the value associated with those outcomes] -The most fully developed version of path-goal theory identifies four kinds of leader behavior 1. Directive Leader Behavior 2. Supportive Leader Behavior 3. Participative Leader Behavior 4. Achievement-oriented Leader Behavior -In contrast to LPC, path-goal theory assumes that leaders can change their style or behavior to meet the demands of a particular situation -Path-goal theory focuses on the situation factors of: a. Personal Characteristics of Subordinates b. Environmental Characteristics of the Workplace
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Directive Leader Behavior
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Lets subordinates know what is expected of them, gives guidance and direction, and schedules work
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Supportive Leader Behavior
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Is being friendly and approachable, showing concern for subordinate welfare, and treating members as equals
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Participative Leader Behavior
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Includes consulting with subordinates, soliciting suggestions, and allowing participation in decision making
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Achievement-Oriented Leader Behavior
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Means setting challenging goals, expecting subordinates to perform at high levels, encouraging subordinates, and showing confidence in subordinates' abilities
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Personal Characteristics of Subordinates
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I. Subordinates perception of their own abilities -If people perceive that they are lacking in abilities, they may prefer directive leadership to help them understand path-goal relationships better -If they perceive themselves to have a lot of abilities, however, employees may resent directive leadership II. Locus of Control- a personality trait - Internal Locus of Control: People who believe that what happens to them is a function of their own efforts and behavior (may prefer participative leadership) - External Locus of Control: People who assume that fate, luck, or "the system" determines what happens to them (may prefer directive leadership)
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Environmental Characteristics
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I. Factors outside the Subordinates' Control -Task structure is one such factor. When structure is high, directive leadership is less effective than when structure is low (Subordinates do not usually need their boss to continually tell them how to do an extremely routine job II. Formal Authority System -The higher the degree of formality, the less directive is the leader behavior that will be accepted by subordinates III. Nature of the Group Work -When the work group provides the employee w/ social support and satisfaction, supportive leader behavior is less critical -When social support and satisfaction cannot be derived from the group, the worker may look to the leader for this support
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The Path-Goal Framework [ADD PHOTO]
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The path-goal theory of leadership suggests that managers can use four types of leader behavior to clarify subordinates' paths to goal attainment -Personal characteristics of the subordinate and environmental characteristics within the organization both must be taken into account when determining which style of leadership will work best for a particular situation
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Vroom's Decision Tree Approach
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Predicts what kinds of situations call for different degrees of group participation -Victor Vroom and Philip Yetton -Assumes that the same leader may display different leadership styles -Concerns itself with only a single aspect of leader behavior: Subordinate Participation in Decision Making
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Vroom's Decision Tree Approach: Basic Premise
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-Assumes that the degree to which subordinates should be encouraged to participate in decision making depends on the characteristics of the situation -In other words, no one decision-making process is best fro all situations -After evaluating a variety of problem attributes (characteristics of the problem or decision) the leader determines an appropriate decision style that specifies the amount of subordinate participation -Vroom's current formulation suggests that managers use on of two different decision trees: I. Time-Driven II. Development-Driven -Steps to deciding which: 1. The manager first assesses the situation in terms of several factors (this assessment involves determining whether the given factor is high or low for the decision that is to be made) Ex.) the first factor is decision significance (if the decision is extremely important and may have a major impact on the organization, such as choosing a location for a new plant, its significance is high) -This assessment guides the manager through the paths of the decision tree to a recommended course of action -The problem attributes (situational factors) are arranged along the top of the decision tree -To use the model, the decision maker STARTS at the left side of the diagram and assesses the first problem attribute DECISION SIGNIFICANCE. The answer determines the path to the second node on the decision tree, where the next attribute (IMPORTANCE OF COMMITMENT) is assessed. This process continues until a terminal node is reached
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Vroom's Time-Driven Decision Tree [ADD PHOTO]
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This matrix is recommended for situations where time is of the highest importance in making a decision. The matrix operates like a funnel. You start at the left with a specific decision problem in mind. The column headings denote situational factors that may or may not be present in that problem. You progress by selecting high or low (H or L) for each relevant situational factor. Proceed down the funnel, judging only those situational factors for which a judgement is called, until you reach the recommended process
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Vroom's Development-Driven Decision Tree
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This matrix is to be used when the leader is more interested in developing employees than in making the decision as quickly as possible. Just as with the time-driven tree, the leader assesses up to seven situational factors: 1. Decision Significance 2. IMportance of Commitment 3. Leader Expertise 4. Likelihood of Commitment 5. Group Support 6. Group Expertise 7. Team Competence -These factors, in turn, funnel the leader to a recommended process for making the decision
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(5)Decision-Making Styles
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The various decision styles (reflected at the ends of the tree branches) represent different levels of subordinate participation that the manager should attempt to adopt in a given situation I. Decide - the manager makes the decision alone and then announces or "sells" it to the group II. Consult (individually) - the manager presents the program to group members individually, obtains their suggestions, and then makes the decision III. Consult (group) - the manager presents the problem to group members at a meeting, gets their suggestions, and then makes the decision IV. Facilitate - the manager presents the problem to the group at a meeting, defines the problem and its boundaries, and then facilitates group member discussion as they make the decision V. Delegate - the manager allows the group to define for itself the exact nature and parameters of the problem and then to develop a solution
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Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Model [ADD PHOTO]
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Stresses that leaders have different kinds of relationships with different subordinates -George Graen and Fred Dansereau -Each superior-subordinate pair is referred to as a "Vertical Dyad" -The model differs from earlier approaches in that it focuses on the differential relationship leaders often establish with different subordinates - - The LMC model suggests that leaders form unique independent relationships with each of their subordinates. As illustrated here, a key factor in the nature of this relationship is whether the individual subordinate is in the leader's out-group or in-group -The In-Group: a. A small number of trusted subordinates that supervisors establish a special relationship with b. Usually receives special duties requiring responsibility and autonomy; they may also receive special privileges -The Out-Group: a. Subordinates who are not a part of the in-group b. Receive less of the supervisor's time and attention -NOTE: in the figure that the leader has a dyadic, or one-to-one, relationship with each of the five subordinates -Early in his or her interaction with a given subordinate, the supervisor initiates either an in-group or an out-group relationship -The decision may be based on personal compatibility and subordinates' competence -Studies generally have found that in-group members have a higher level of performance and satisfaction than do out-group members
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Substitutes for Leadership Concept
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A concept that identifies situations in which leader behaviors are neutralized or replaced by characteristics of subordinates, the task, and the organization -Was developed because existing leadership models and theories do not account for situations in which leadership is not needed Ex.) When a patient is delivered to a hospital emergency room, the professionals on duty do not wait to be told what to do by a leader -Characteristics of the subordinate that may serve to neutralize leader behavior include: a. ability b. experience c. need for independence d. professional orientation e. indifference toward organizational rewards -Task characteristics that may substitute for leadership include: a. routineness b. availability of feedback c. intrinsic satisfaction -Organizational characteristics that may substitute for leadership include: a. formalization b. group cohesion c. inflexibility d. rigid reward structure
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Charismatic Leadership Concept
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Assumes that charisma is an individual characteristic of the leader (like the trait theories) -All else being equal, then, someone with charisma is more likely to be able to influence others than is someone w/out charisma -Influence is again a fundamental element of this perspective -Robert House -His theory suggests that charismatic leaders are likely to have a lot of self-confidence, a firm conviction in their beliefs and ideals, and a strong need to influence people. They also tend to communicate high expectations about follower performance and express confidence in followers -There are three elements of charismatic leadership in organizations that most experts acknowledge today: 1. First, the leader needs to be able to envision the future, set high expectations, and model behaviors consistent w/ meeting those expectations 2. Next, the charismatic leader must be able to energize others through a demonstration of personal excitement, personal confidence, and patterns of success 3. And, finally, the charismatic leader enables others by supporting them, empathizing with them , and expressing confidence in them
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Transformational Leadership
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Leadership that goes beyond ordinary expectations by transmitting a sense of mission, stimulating learning experiences, and inspiring new ways of thinking -Another new perspective on leadership that has been called by a number of labels: charismatic leadership, inspirational leadership, symbolic leadership, and transformational leadership -Because of rapid change and turbulent environments, transformational leaders are increasingly being seen as vital to the success of business -A recent article in the popular press identified seven keys to successful leadership: 1. Trusting one's subordinates 2. Developing a vision 3. Keeping cool 4. Encouraging risk 5. Being an expert 6. Inviting dissent 7. Simplifying things (Although this list was the result of a simplistic survey of the leadership literature, it is nevertheless consistent with the premises underlying transformational leadership)
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(3)Approaches to Leadership
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1. Strategic Leadership 2. Cross-Cultural Leadership 3. Ethical Leadership
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Strategic Leadership
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The capability to understand the complexities of both the organization and its environment and to lead change in the organization in order to achieve and maintain a superior alignment between the organization and its environment -ONe key element of effective strategic leadership is the board of directors -To be effective in this role: 1. A manager needs to have a thorough and complete understanding of the organization (its history, its culture, its strengths, and its weaknesses) 2. The leader needs a firm grasp of the organization's environment (current conditions and circumstances as well as significant trends and issues on the horizon) 3. The leader also needs to recognize how the firm is currently aligned with its environment (where it relates effectively and where it relates less effectively with that environment) 4. Finally the strategic leader works to improve both the current alignment and the future alignment (looking at environmental trends and issues)
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Cross-Cultural Leadership
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-Another new approach to leadership which is based on cross-cultural issues -In this context, culture is used as a broad concept to encompass both international differences and diversity-based differences within one culture -Cross-cultural factors play a growing role in organizations as their workforces become more and more diverse
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Ethical Leadership
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Most people have long assumed that top managers are ethical people. But in the wake of recent corporate scandals, faith in top managers has been shaken -Perhaps now more than ever, high standards of ethical conduct are being help up as a prerequisite for effective leadership -More specifically, top managers are being called on to: a. maintain high ethical standards for their own conduct b. exhibit ethical behavior unfailingly c. hold others in their organization to the same standards
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Political Behavior
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The activities carried out for the specific purpose of acquiring, developing, and using power and other resources to obtain one's preferred outcomes -Political behavior may be undertaken by: a. managers dealing with their subordinates b. subordinates dealing with their managers c. managers and subordinates dealing with others at the same level -In other words, it may be directed upward, downward, or laterally Ex.) Decisions ranging from where to locate a manufacturing plant to where to put the company coffee maker are subject to political action -In any situation, individuals may engage in political behavior to: a. further their own ends b. to protect themselves from others c. to further goals they sincerely believe to be in the organization's best interest d. or simply to acquire and exercise power (And power may be sought by individuals, by groups of individuals, or by groups of groups -Although political behavior is difficult to study because of its sensitive nature, one early survey found that many managers believed that politics influenced salary and hiring decisions in their firm -Many also believed that the incidence of political behavior was greater at the upper levels of their organization and lesser at the lower levels
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(4)Common Political Behaviors
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Research has identified four basic forms of political behavior widely practiced in organizations: 1. Inducement 2. Persuasion 3. Creation of an Obligation 4. Coercion
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Inducement
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Occurs when a manger offers to give something to someone else in return for that individual's support Ex.) A product manager might suggest to another product manager that she will put in a good word with his boss if he supports a new marketing plan that she has developed
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Persuasion
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Relies on both emotion and logic Ex.) An operations manager wanting to construct a new plant on a certain site might persuade others to support his goal on grounds that are objective and logical (is less expensive; taxes are lower) as well as subjective and personal
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Creation of an Obligation
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One manager might support a recommendation made by another manager for a new advertising campaign. Although he might really have no opinion on the new campaign, he might think that by going along, he is incurring a debt from the other manager and will be able to "call in" that debt when he wants to get something done and needs additional support
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Coercion
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Is the use of force to get one's way Ex.) A manager may threaten to withhold support, rewards, or other resources as a way to influence someone else
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*Impression Management*
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A direct and intentional effort by someone to enhance his or her image in the eyes of others -A subtle form of political behavior that deserves special mention -People engage in impression management for a variety of reasons: 1. They may do so to further their own careers (by making themselves look good, they think they are more likely to receive rewards, to be given attractive job assignments, and to receive promotions 2. They may also do so to boost their self-esteem (when people have a solid image in an organization, others make them aware of it through compliments, respect, and so forth 3. Still another reason people use impression management is in an effort to acquire more power and hence more control -People attempt to manage how others perceive them through a variety of mechanisms: 1. Appearance is one of the first things people think of Ex.) A person motivated by impression management will pay close attention to choice of attire, selection of language, and use of manners and body posture 2. People interested in impression management are also likely to jockey for association only w/ successful projects Ex.) By being assigned to high-profile projects led by highly successful managers, a person can begin to link his or her own name with such projects in the minds of others 3. Sometimes people too strongly motivated by impression management become obsessed with it and may resort to dishonest or unethical means Ex.) Some people have been known to take credit for others' work in an effort to make themselves look better Ex.) People have also been known to exaggerate or even falsify their personal accomplishments in an effort to build an enhanced image
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Managing Political Behavior
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By its very nature, political behavior is tricky to approach in a rational and systematic way. -But managers can handle political behavior so that it does not do excessive damage: 1. First, managers should be aware that, even if their actions are not politically motivated, others may assume that they are 2. Second, by providing subordinates with autonomy, responsibility, challenge, and feedback, managers reduce the likelihood of political behavior by subordinates 3. Third, managers should avoid using power if they want to avoid charges of political motivation 4. Fourth, managers should get disagreements out in the open so that subordinates will have less opportunity for political behavior through using conflict for their own purposes 5. Finally, managers should avoid covert activities (behind-the-scenes activities give the impression of political intent, even if none really exists) -Other guidelines include; a. clearly communicating the bases and processes for performance evaluation b. tying rewards directly to performance c. minimizing competition among managers for resources -The well-informed manager should not assume that political behavior does not exist or, worse yet, attempt to eliminate it by issuing orders or commands -Instead, the manager must recognize that political behavior exists in virtually all organizations and that it cannot be ignored or stamped out. It can, however, be managed in such a way that it will seldom inflict serious damage. It may even play a useful role in some situations (a manager may be able to use his or her political influence to stimulate a greater sense of social responsibility or to heighten awareness of the ethical implications of a decision) -Recommendations from effective leaders: 1. Develop a routine that keeps personal energy levels high to help cope with very long hours 2. Low need for sleep and dedication to regular exercise are plusses 3. Be a sponge for information, using many sources and technologies for communications, but don't neglect face-to-face conversations 4. Carve out time for quiet reflection and concentration 5. And focus on inspiring and satisfying your organization's most important stakeholders
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Morale
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The attitude or feelings workers have about the organization and their total work life
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Quality of Work Life (QWL)
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Factors in the work environment contributing positively or negatively to workers' physical and emotional well-being and job satisfaction -Factors that enhance the quality of work life: employee commitment, absence of apathy, development and utilization of employees, employee involvement and influence, advancement based on merit, career goal progress, good relations with supervisor, positive work-group relations, respect for individuals, confidence in management, pleasant physical working environment, economic well-being, positive state of mind, absence of undue job stress, positive impact on personal life, smooth union-management relations
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Motivation
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The result of the interaction of a person's internal needs and external influences--involving perceptions of equity, expectancy, previous conditioning, and goal setting--which determine how a person will behave -The study of motivation is concerned w/ what prompts people to act, what influences their choice of action, and why they persist in acting in a certain way. The starting point is to look at a person's needs by using a motivation model
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Needs
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Physiological or psychological conditions in humans that act as stimuli for behavior -Provides basis for a motivation model I. Physiological needs: relate to the body and include requirements for air, water, and food II. Psychological needs: include the need for affiliation and self-esteem -Needs create a tension (stimulus) that results in wants. The person then develops a behavior or set of behaviors to satisfy his or her wants. The behavior results in action toward goal achievement Ex.) A person feels hunger (a need). Recognition of the need triggers a want (food). The person chooses to cook a hamburger (behavior) and then eats it (takes action to achieve the goal). Satisfied, he feels no hunger (feedback)
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*Integrated Motivation Model*
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Unsatisfied needs stimulate wants and behaviors. In choosing a behavior to satisfy a need, a person must evaluate three factors: 1. Past experiences - All the person's past experiences with the situation at hand enter into the motivation model (these include the satisfaction derived from acting in a certain way, any frustration felt, the amount of effort required, and the relationship of performance to rewards) 2. Environmental Influences - The choices of behaviors are affected by the environment, which in a business setting make up the organization's values as well as the expectations and actions of management 3. Perceptions - The individual is influences by perceptions of the expected effort required to achieve performance and by the value of the reward both absolutely and in relation to what peers have received for the same effort -In addition to thse three variables, two other factors are at work: 1. Skills - a person's performance capabilities that result from training 2. Incentives - factors created by managers to encourage workers to perform a task
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*(4)Content Theories*
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A group of motivation theories emphasizing the needs that motivate people I. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs II. Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory III. McClelland and the Need for Achievement IV. Alderfer's ERG Theory
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*Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs*
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-Based on four premises: I. Only an unsatisfied need can influence behavior; a satisfied need is not a motivator II. A person's needs are arranged in a priority order of importance III. A person will at least minimally satisfy each level of need before feeling the need at the next level IV. If need satisfaction is not maintained at any level, the unsatisfied need will become a priority once again -Five Level of Needs 1. Physical (physiological) - primary/basic-level needs: water, air, food, shelter, comfort Ex.) Manager provides salaries/wages that allow employees to buy the basic necessities 2. Safety: security for self and possessions, avoidance of risks/harm/pain Ex.) Behaviors that reflect safety needs include: joining unions, seeking jobs with tenure, and choosing jobs on the basis of health insurance and retirement Ex.) Managers attempt to satisfy safety needs by providing salaries, benefits, safe work conditions, and job security 3. Social - companionship, acceptance, love and affection, group membership Ex.) At work employees meet social needs by: interacting frequently with fellow workers and through acceptance of others, water cooler gathering, groups at lunchtime Ex.) Managers can meet these needs by supporting employee get-togethers, birthday parties, lunches, and sports teams 4. Esteem - responsibility, self-respect, recognition, sense of accomplishment Ex.) Satisfaction of these needs gives one pride, self-confidence, and genuine sense of importance (lack of satisfaction of these needs can result in feelings of inferiority, weakness, and helplessness Ex.) Work-related activities and outcomes that help meet individual esteem needs include: successfully completing projects, being recognized by peers and superiors as someone who makes valuable contributions, and acquiring organizational titles 5. Self-Realization ("self-actualization") - reaching your potential, independence, creativity, self-expression (desires for fulfillment, represents the need to maximize the use of one's skills, abilities, and potential)
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*Hertzberg's Two-Factor Theory*
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-Frederick Herzberg developed a needs theory called the two-factor, or "hygiene-motivator", theory -Defines two sets of factors 1. Hygiene Factors (lead to job dissatisfaction) 2. Motivation Factors (produce job satisfaction/motivation) -Once top management has provided satisfactory hygiene factors, it can focus on motivation factors
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Hygiene Factors ("Maintenance Factors")
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Maintenance factors (such as salary, status, working conditions) that do not relate directly to a person's actual work activity, but when of low quality are the cause of unhappiness on the job -A manager's poor handling of hygiene factors is the primary cause of unhappiness on the job -Extrinsic to the job (do not relate directly to a person's actual work activity -High quality hygiene factors are not necessarily stimuli for grown or greater effort. They seek only to prevent employee's job dissatisfaction (salary, job security, status, working conditions, company policies, quality of technical supervision, quality of interpersonal relations among peers, supervisors, and subordinates)
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Motivation Factors
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The conditions, intrinsic to the job, that can lead to an individual's job satisfaction (motivation factors relate to job content) -Act as stimuli for psychological and personal growth -These factors are as follows: a. Achievement b. Recognition c. Responsibility d. Advancement e. The work itself f. Possibility of growth -All supervisors have the power to increase motivation in the workplaces they manage by: granting more responsibility to employees, praising their accomplishments, and making them feel that they are succeeding -Motivated employees believe they have control over their jobs and can make a contribution -This belief provides the basis for team management, empowerment, and intrapreneurship
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*McClelland and the Need for Achievement
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-In David McClelland's need theory, certain types of needs are learned during a lifetime of interactions with the environment. He described three needs: 1. Achievement, or the desire to excel or achieve in relation to a set of standards 2. Power, or the desire to control others or have influence over them 3. Affiliation, or the desire for friendship, cooperation, and close interpersonal relationships -Achievement relates to individual performance -Power and affiliation, by contrast, involve interpersonal relationships -Studies of achievement motivation have produced two important ideas: 1. a strong achievement needs relates to how well individuals are motivated to perform their work 2. The achievement need can be strengthened by training -McClelland's needs theory recognizes that people may have different mixtures or combinations of needs; an individual could be described as a: I. High Achiever II. Power-Motivated Person III. Affiliator
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High Achiever
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-Mclelland and associate David Burnham defined the characteristics of the high achiever: a. Performs a task because of a compelling need for personal achievement, not necessarily for the rewards associated with accomplishing the task b. Prefers to take personal responsibility for solving problems rather than leaving the outcome to others c. Prefers to set moderate goals that, with stretching, are achievable. For the achiever, easy goals with a high probability of success provide no challenge and thus no satisfaction d. Prefers immediate and concrete feedback about performance, which assists in measuring progress toward the goal -Managers should work to identify and encourage the development of high achievers. Mangers should capitalize on the high achievers' goal-setting ability and on their desire for responsibility Ex.) This can be accomplished by providing them with opportunities for participation, by delegating authority to them, and by using management by objectives -To work effectively with high achievers, managers should provide immediate, concrete feedback
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Power-Motivated Person
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The person with a strong desire for power needs to acquire, exercise, and maintain influence over others -Such persons compete with others if success will allow them to be dominant -Does not avoid confrontations - -When dealing with the power-motivated person, managers should recognize that the use of power is a necessary part of corporate life and that those who are motivated by power can serve as necessary and useful members of the organization - -Managers should be aware of the negative aspect of power as a motivator - -Many individuals seek power solely for personal benefit. The power-motivated person may not, therefore, have the organization's best interests at heart
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Affiliator
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The person with a high need for affiliation wants to be liked by other people, attempts to establish friendships, and seeks to avoid conflict -Prefers conciliation -In working with employees whom McClelland labeled affiliators, managers must be aware that these employees desire to avoid conflict, which may prevent them from handling organizational conflict effectively
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Alderfer's ERG Theory
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Psychologist Clayton Alderfer proposed a needs theory that compressed Maslow's five levels of needs into three: 1. Existence Needs 2. Relatedness Needs 3. Growth Needs -Maslow and Alderfer agreed that an unsatisfied need is a [motivator], and that as lower-level needs are satisfied they become less important -However, he believed that higher-lever needs become more important as they are satisfied -Managers should realize that a person may willingly slip down the needs hierarchy if attempts to achieve needs are frustrated - To maintain high levels of performance, managers should provide opportunities for employees to capitalize on higher-order needs Ex.) Managers can do this by: recognizing employees and encouraging participation in decision making
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Existence Needs
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Existence needs relate to a person's physical well-being (In Maslow's model, existence needs include physiological and safety needs)
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Relatedness Needs
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This level includes needs for satisfactory relationships with others (relatedness needs correspond, in Maslow's model, to social needs)
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Growth Needs
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Growth needs call for the realization of potential and the achievement of competence (In Maslow's model, growth needs become esteem and self-realization needs)
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*(4)Process Theories: Motivation Theories Focusing on Behaviors*
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1. Expectancy Theory 2. Reinforcement Theory 3. Equity Theory 4. Goal-setting Theory -Each derives from past experiences, environmental influences, and perceptions (See Integrated Motivation Model Figure 12.3)
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*Expectancy Theory*
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A motivation theory stating that three factors influence behavior: I. The value of rewards II. The relationship of rewards to the necessary performance III. The effort required for performance -Developed by Victor Vroom, expectancy theory states that before choosing a behavior, an individual will evaluate various possibilities on the basis of anticipated work and reward -[Motivation] - the spur to act - is a function of how badly we want something and how likely we think we are to get it. Its intensity functions in direct proportion to perceived or expected rewards Expectancy theory includes three variables: 1. Effort-Performance Link (will the effort achieve performance?/How much effort will performance require? How probable is success?) 2. Performance-Reward Link (what is the possibility that a certain performance will produce the desired reward or outcome?) 3. Attractiveness (How attractive is the reward?/This factor relates to the strength or importance of the reward to the individual and deals with his or her unsatisfied needs -Behavior is heavily influenced by perceptions of the outcomes of behavior -The key factor for successful programs is the effort-performance link -Incentive pay works when workers feel they can meet targets -Workers can help attain the goal by increasing their skill levels
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*Reinforcement Theory*
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A motivation theory that states a supervisor's reactions and past rewards and penalties affect employee's behavior -B. F. Skinner (operant conditioning) -Much of motivated behavior is learned behavior Ex.) The employee learns over time what type of performance is acceptable and what is unacceptable. This learning influences future behavior -Reinforcement is affected by time... The closer the reinforcement is to the behavior, the greater the impact it will have on future behavior -Reinforcement theory has several implications for managers: 1. Managers should bear in mind that motivated behavior is influenced by the employee's learning what is acceptable and unacceptable to the organization 2. In addition, in working with employees to develop motivated behavior, managers should to the following: a. tell individuals what they can do to get positive reinforcement b. tell individuals what they are doing wrong c. base rewards on performance d. administer the reinforcement as close in time to the related behavior as possible e. recognize that failure to reward can also modify behavior -By applying these guidelines, managers can, as they help employees focus on organizational objectives, modify employee behavior at the same time
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*(4)Types of Reinforcement*
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-Managers can choose from four main types of reinforcement: 1. Positive reinforcement 2. Avoidance 3. Extinction 4. Punishment -Positive reinforcement most often leads to long-range growth in individuals by producing lasting and positive behavioral changes
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Positive Reinforcement
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To increase the probability that an individual will repeat a desired behavior, a manager provides positive reinforcement as soon as possible after the desired behavior occurs -Positive reinforcers can be: praise, pay, or promotions (elements normally regarded as favorable by employees)
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Avoidance
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This method of reinforcement attempts to increase the probability that a positive behavior will be repeated by showing the consequences of behavior the manager does not desire -The employee avoids those consequences by displaying a desired behavior Ex.) a manager has a policy of penalizing all employees who do not turn in reports on time. As long as the threat of punishment is there, employees will be motivated to meet the required deadline
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Extinction
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Managers are using extinction when they choose to ignore the behavior of subordinates in order to weaken the behavior -This approach is most effective when behavior is temporary, atypical, and not serious in its negative consequences
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Punishment
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Managers might attempt to decrease the recurrence of a behavior by applying negative consequences, or punishment -Loss of privileges, docked pay, and suspension are forms of punishment -The trouble with punishment as a response to behavior is that the person will learn what not to do but will not necessarily learn the desired behavior
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*Equity Theory*
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A motivation theory in which comparisons of relative input-outcome ratios influence behavior choices -People determine equity by calculating a simple ratio: the effort they are expected to invest on the job (their input) in relation to what they expect to receive after investing that effort (the outcome or reward) -Equity exists when the ratios are equivalent -[inequity]: exists when , in the employee's mind, inputs exceed the relative or perceived values -Two points about equity theory: 1. When an individual perceives himself or herself as the victim of inequity, one of three responses occurs: the person can decide to escape the situation ("i quit"), put the input-outcome ration in balance ("I'll do less" or "i want a raise"), or attempt to change perceptions ("It's actually fair because...") 2. The second point about equity theory concerns the referent the person selects for comparison. There are two categories: other and system Ex.) OTher includes those persons in the same job, same team, or same league, or those with similar backgrounds or in the same circle of friends Ex.) The system is the referent when the individual recognizes the presence of organization-wide policies and procedures ("If those people are allowed overtime, I should have overtime when I need it to complete my work") -Equity theory emphasizes that employees are motivated by both the absolute and relative rewards available in the system. -More important, employees make conscious comparisons of equity, and these comparisons have the potential to influence employee motivation levels (managers need to recognize that perceptions of equity are constantly in flux)
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*Goal-Setting Theory*
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A motivation theory stating that behavior is influenced by goals, which tell employees what they need to do and how much effort they need to expend -Similar to the concepts associated with expectancy theory in that it focuses on the conscious choices a person makes -According to the theory, there are two approached to goal setting: 1. Managers may set goals for the employees 2. Employees and managers develop employee goals together -According to goal-setting theory, managers should: a. work with employees in setting goals b. make goals specific rather than general c. Provide feedback on performance
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Philosophy of Management
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A manager's attitude about work and the people who perform it, which influences the motivation approaches he or she selects -The theories of Maslow, Herzberg, McClelland, and Alderfer offer valuable insight into the needs that drive motivation. The theories of expectancy, reinforcement, and goal setting reveal the WHY of management - why employees display different types of motivated behavior -A manager's philosophy of management incorporates and reflects: personal beliefs about human nature in the work-setting about worker attitudes and characteristics, employee maturity, and the influence of management expectations on behavior -To develop a philosophy of management, there are three concepts describing human nature that should be incorporated: I. Theory X and Theory Y II. Argyris's Maturity Theory III. Development of management expectations
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Theory X
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A philosophy of management with a negative perception of subordinates' potential for and attitudes toward work -Douglas McGregor -It assumes that subordinates dislike work, are poorly motivated, and require close supervision Ex.) A manager with these beliefs tends to control the group, use negative motivation, and refuse to delegate decision making
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Theory Y
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A philosophy of management with a positive perception of subordinates' potential for and attitudes toward work -It assumes, that subordinates can be self-directing, will seek responsibility, and find work as natural or play or rest Ex.) The outcome of this belief is a manger who encourages people to seek responsibility, involves people in decision making, and works with people to achieve their goals
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Assumptions about workers according to Theory X and Theory Y
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-The important point about Theory X and Theory Y is that a manager's philosophy influences the kind of work climate he or she endeavors to create and, ultimately, shapes how the manger treat people
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Argyris's Maturity Theory
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A manager's philosophy incorporates his or her attitude toward employee maturity -Chris Argyris (organizational learning) -Related the development of individual maturity to the structure of organizations -Argyris believed that people develop along a continuum from immaturity to maturity. People who have reached maturity: a. Tend to be active rather than passive b. Are independent rather than dependent c. Are self-aware rather than unaware d. Are self-controlled rather than controlled by others -Argyris's concern was that a mature personality conflicts with typical organizations in fur ways: 1. The formal chain of command limits self-determination, making individuals passive and manager dependent 2. The span of control decreases a person's self-determination 3. Unity of direction places objectives under control of one manager. It limits the employee's ability to define objectives 4. Specialization of labor limits initiative and self-determination
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Development of Expectations
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IN developing a philosophy of management, a manager must consider the importance of expectations -John L. Single reports that a. Subordinates do what they believe they are expected to do b. Ineffective mangers fail to develop high expectations for performance c. Mangers perceived as excellent create high performance expectations that their employees can fulfill -The last point, that employees fulfill their manager's expectations, if often referred to as the [Self-fulfilling Prophecy] -Incorporating expectations into management requires two phases: 1. The first consists of developing and communicating expectations of performance, group citizenship, individual initiative, and job creativity 2. The second involves consistency (The manager must be consistent in his or her expectations in communicating them. -Consistency will produce reinforcement and, in the end, promote stability and reduce anxiety -In order to foster communication and consistency, many companies use an [intranet] - a Web site just fro employees. (information on the intranet provides current company, industry, customer, and supplier information via automated news feeds and knowledge management repositories
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Managing for Motivation
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With a well-rounded, people-centered philosophy in place, a manager is ready to motivate by creating a positive, supportive work environment -How to manage for motivation: a. How to treat people as individuals b. Offer support c. Recognize and value diversity d. Foster empowerment e. Provide an effective reward system f. Redesign jobs g. Promote Intrapreneurship h. Create flexibility in work
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Treating People as Individuals
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Successful managers recognize people as individuals and work with their particular differences -The successful manager knows that, because each of us in an individual, each of us is motivated differently
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Providing Support
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To develop motivated employees, a manager must provide a climate in which each employee's needs can be met -A starting point is to facilitate attainment of the employee's goals -The manager does this by: removing barriers, developing mutual goal-setting opportunities, initiating training and education programs, encouraging risk taking, and providing stability -Two other actions can provide support and enhance the environment: 1. The first is the open appreciation of employee's contributions 2. The second action managers can take is to show sensitivity to employee' needs for equity. Each employee must feel that he or she is receiving a fair exchange for his or her input into the company and in comparison to other employees
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Recognizing and Valuing Diversity
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The composition of the workforce is changing, and with it, workers' needs, goals, and values. Mangers are no longer managing a homogenous workforce -Managers need to respond to this diversity by understanding, appreciating, and utilizing the differences -As the diversity in the workforce continues to change, traditional programs for training, monitoring, ad compensation may have to be modified -The diversity brings contrasting viewpoints, experiences, and needs to the work environment
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Empowering Employees
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Leaders empower employees by: sharing authority and information, providing needed training, listening to employees, developing relationships based on mutual trust and respect, and acting on employee recommendations -Empowerment is designed to unshackle the worker and make the job-not just part of the job- the worker's -Employees, by being empowered, make decisions that formerly were made by the manager -Empowerment results in greater responsibility and innovation and a willingness to take risks -Ownership and trust, along with autonomy and authority, become a motivational package
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Providing an Effective Reward SyStem
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To motivate behavior, an organization must provide an effective reward system -Given the belief that all people are individuals with different needs, values, expectations, and goals, the reward system must accommodate many variables -According to David Van Fleet, an effective reward system has the following characteristics: 1. Rewards must satisfy the basic needs of all employees (pay must be adequate, benefits reasonable, and vacations and holidays appropriate) 2. Rewards must be comparable to those offered by competitive organizations in the same area ( the pay offered for the same job should be equal to that offered by a competitive company/ and benefits too) 3. Rewards must be equally available to people in the same positions and be distributed fairly and equitably (people performing the same job need to have the same options for reward and also be involved in the decisions governing which rewards they receive) 4. The reward system must be multifaceted (because all people are different managers must provide a range of rewards that focus on different aspects-pay, time off, recognition, or promotions) -The last point is worth noting. Many people are beginning to view traditional pay systems as inadequate (In a traditional system, workers are paid according to the positions they hold, not the contributions they make)
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Redesigning Jobs
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Jobs are important motivational tools because what they contain may provide a means to meet an employee's needs -Managers need to know what elements of a job provide motivation and then apply the concepts of job-redesign
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Job Redesign
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The application of motivational theories to the structure of work, to increase output and satisfaction
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Principles of Job Redesign
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Jobs and organizations has been reexamined with the aim of providing greater challenges and offering other psychological rewards at work -Mangers have assigned less interesting repetitive tasks to robots and other kinds of computer-assisted machines. Training and development programs have been devised that enable people to preform more demanding tasks and jobs -Job redesign requires a knowledge of and concern for the human qualities that people bring with them to the organization-such things are their needs and expectations ,perceptions and values, and levels of skill and abilities -Job redesign also requires knowledge of the qualities of jobs- their physical and mental demands and the environment in which they are performed -The two approaches to job redesign relate to: I. Job Scope II. Job Depth
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Job Scope
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An element of job redesign that refers to the variety of tasks incorporated into a job
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Job Depth
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An element of job redesign referring to the degree of discretion and employee has to alter the job
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Job Enlargement
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Increasing the variety or the number of tasks in a job, not the quality or the challenge of those tasks -HORIZONTAL LOADING -Job enlargement may attempt to demand more of the same from an employee or add to other tasks containing an equal or lesser amount of meaning or challenge Ex.) Underworked employees can benefit from job enlargement. Their sense of competence improves as their volume of output does
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Job Rotation
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Temporarily assigning people to different jobs or tasks on a rotating basis -The idea is to add variety and to emphasize the interdependence of a group of jobs Ex.) Managers involved in job rotation gain knowledge about the operations of departments outside their own -Job rotation can be used for cross training, or to facilitate permanent job transfers or promotions -Workers who can benefit from job rotation are those who are interested in or ready for promotion and those who need variety
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Job Enrichment
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Designing a job to provide more responsibility, control, feedback, and authority for decision making -Herzberg -VERTICAL JOB LOADING -Job enrichment should include the following elements: a. Variety of tasks b. Task Importance c. Task responsibility d. Feedback -Regardless of the approach selected, for job enrichment to be successful, participation must be voluntary and management must be competent in its day-to-day operations as well as in its efforts at job enrichment -Also, once introduced, changes do not yield improvements overnight; mistakes can be made in the implementation of job enrichment programs and setbacks can occur -Companies that undertake job enrichment find higher morale and improved productivity
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Intrapreneurship
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Entrepreneurship within an organization, allowing employees flexibility and authority in pursuing and developing new ideas -As an organization grows, it has a tendency to establish rules, policies, and procedures-to become mechanistic in nature -The formal control systems that become established with bureaucratic procedures cause it to lose innovative energy -Intrapreneurship in essence, a process whereby an pursues an idea and has the authority to develop and promote it within the boundaries of the formal organization -These individuals become [intrapreneurs]- employees who think and act like owners (they take responsibility for an idea or project and are empowered to make it successful) -A manager can foster intrapreneurship by following theses guidelines: encourage action, use informal meetings whenever possible, tolerate failure, be persistent, reward innovation, plan the physical layout to encourage informal communication, reward and/or promote innovative personnel
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Creating Flexibility
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Another way managers can motivate workers is to provide them with flexibility in work through: I. Flextime II. Compressed workweek III. Job Sharing -Flexibility in work is also facilitated through the use of e-mail communication
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Flextime
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An employment alternative allowing employees to decide, within a certain range, when to begin and end each workday -It thus allows them to take care of personal business before or after work and to vary their daily schedules -Companies that have adopted this approach have reported decreases in absenteeism, lower turnover, less tardiness, and higher morale
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Compressed Workweek
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A schedule that allows employees to fulfill weekly time obligation in fewer days than the traditional five-day workweek -The approach (like flextime) provides more time for personal business and recreation (employees who adopt it report improved job satisfaction -Some managers think compressed workweeks make scheduling too difficult/managers fear loss of control
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Job Sharing ("Twinning")
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A technique to provide flexibility by permitting two part-time workers to divide on full-time job -Such an occupational buddy system is ideal for parents who are raising school-aged children or people who prefer part-time employment -The benefit from an employer's standpoint is that creative input comes from two sources, and the cost is only one salary and one set of benefits
