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Ester Boserup

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>Boserup identified 5 basic stages in the reduction of fallow farmland: • Forest fallow (left fallow for >20 yrs.) • Bush fallow (up to 10 yrs.) • Short/Field fallow (up to 2 yrs.) • Annual cropping (rotation - fallow for a few months) • Multi-cropping (used several times in a year, climate permitting)

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Challenges in Defining States

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Disagreement exists about actual number of sovereign states as a result of historical disputes involving more than one claim to a territory

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Korea:challenges defining state

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>Leaders of both countries want one Korea > Korean Peninsula was a colony of Japan from 1910 to 1945 >After WWII, the country was divided >N Korea invaded S Korea in 1950 > Korean Demilitarized Zone (DMZ) roughly follows the 38th parallel (160 miles long); established in 1953

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China and Taiwan: One State or Two?

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>Most other countries consider China (People's Republic of China) and Taiwan (Republic of China) as separate and sovereign states >China's government considers Taiwan a part of China >Civil war between the Nationalists and the communists during the 1940s • After losing in 1949, the Nationalists fled to Taiwan > Taiwan lost its UN member 1971

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Western Sahara: challenges defining state

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>Most African countries consider Western Sahara a sovereign state (103,000 sq. mi with a population of about 600,000) >Morocco claims the territory and has built a 1,700 mi wall around it to keep rebels out >The legal status of the territory and the question of its sovereignty remains unresolved >It is considered a non-self-governed territory by the United Nations

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Physical Boundaries

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>coincide with significant features of the natural landscape

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Desert Boundary

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type of physical boundary. >Desert boundaries are common in Africa and the Middle East. >Unmarked border between Mali and Mauritania runs through the Sahara Desert > Desert boundaries effectively divide two states, because deserts are hard to cross and sparsely inhabited

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Mountain boundaries

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Type of physical boundary. >effectively divides two states because mountains are difficult to cross - also sparsely populated. >The Andes serve as the boundary between Argentina and Chile.

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Water Boundary

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Type of physical boundary. >Examples include rivers, lakes, and oceans (usually in the middle of the water) >Less permanent overall than mountain boundaries because of tendencies of water levels to change in bodies of water and river channels to move over time. > especially common in East Africa

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Geometric Boundaries

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>Regular, often perfectly straight lines drawn without regard for physical or cultural features

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Cultural Boundaries

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>Ethnic boundaries are based on one or more cultural characteristics >A relic boundary is basically a boundary that doesn't exist but still has an effect on the present-day area

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Enclave

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Part of a country that is completely separated from the main land of the country

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Compact

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>distance from the center to any boundary does not vary greatly. >Seems to be the easiest to manage, based on close proximity of the government to the rest of the country/good communication (+) >Easier to defend war (small borders and small area to cover) (+) >Fewer amounts of resources due to the smaller land size (-)

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Elongated

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>A long narrow shape. >Encompasses a large area of and variety of landscapes, adds biodiversity and resources (+) >Difficult to govern peripheral areas and maintain communications (-)

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Prorupted

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>Compact with a large projecting extension. >More of a chance to have resources(+) >Issues with "devolution" sometimes (-) >Can disrupt communications between different regions (-)

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Fragmented

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>A state includes several discontinuous pieces of territory >More area covered means more resources for the country (+) >Lack of communication between different segments (-) >Rebellions in segments that are farther from the capitol could be effective (-)

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Perforated

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A country that completely surrounds another country

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Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)

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is a seazone (up to 200 nautical miles) over which a state has special rights over the exploitation and use of marine resources, including production of energy from water and wind

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Unitary State

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>An independent state in which power is highly concentrated in the central government >Highly centralized government where the capital city serves as a focus of power >Appropriate for states with few internal cultural contrasts and smaller size Weaknesses: •Slow at making decisions because there are so many to make •Governs too big of an area •Bureaucracy and no balance of power

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Federal State

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>A state in which considerable autonomy and power are given to individual provinces and the Central Government is relatively weak > Federalism distributes powers to its territorial sub-divisions (e.g. states and provinces) >Most of the world's largest states are federal >Federalism functions differently depending on the context

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Centripetal and Centrifugal Forces

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>Richard Hartshorne described the forces within the state that unify the people and the forces that divide them >Existence, stability, and development of a country depend on the balance between these two forces

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Centripetal Force

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Any factor that supports the internal unity of a state(pull)

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Centrifugal Forces

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Any factor that disrupts the internal order of a state (push)

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Gerrymandering

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Drawing voting districts to benefit one group over another

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Wasted vote

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type of gerrymandering >spreads opposition supporters across many districts but in the minority •Break up concentration of voters •Mix with different voter groups •Dilute their voting power

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Excess vote

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type of gerrymandering >concentrates one group together in a district • Minimize their impact in other districts • This guarantees them some representation - but weaken them overall

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Stacked vote

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type of gerrymandering >links distant areas of like-minded voters through oddly shaped boundaries • Remove much competition from elections • Often done by incumbents to ensure continued election

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Terrorism

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is a threat or deliberate use of violence against civilians, groups, or even governments

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Al-Qaeda

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•Founded around 1990 by Osama bin Laden(Killed on May 2, 2011) •Laden moved to Afghanistan during the mid-1980s •joined Mujahideen force in Pakistan in 1979 • Declared war against the USA in 1996 • 9/11 attack

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Islamic State (ISIS/ISIL)

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•Originated in 1999 and became an affiliate of al-Qaeda in 2004 and separated from it in 2014 •Comprises of Sunni Muslims who seek to impose strict Islamic laws

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Boko Haram

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•Founded in 2001

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Southwest Asia(crop hearth)

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barley, wheat, lentil, and olive

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East Asia(crop hearth)

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rice and millet

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Sub-Saharan Africa(crop hearth)

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sorghum,yams, millet, and rice

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Latin America(crop hearth)

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beans, cotton, potato, and corn

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Southwest Asia(animal hearth)

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Cattle, goats, pigs, sheep (between 8,000 and 9,000 yrs. ago), and dogs (12,000 yrs. ago)

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Central Asia

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horses

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Agriculture

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cultivation of plants and raising of animals to obtain sustenance and/or economic gain

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Subsistence agriculture

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>the production of food primarily for consumption by the farmer's family. >Practiced primarily in developing countries >A typical subsistence farm has a range of crops and animal needed by the family to eat during the yea

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Commercial agriculture

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>the production of food primarily for sale off the farm >Features that distinguish itself from subsistence agriculture include: lower percentage of farmers in labor force, highly mechanized, and larger farm size

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Diets differ because of:

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1) level of development 2) physical (climatic) conditions 3) cultural preferences

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Dietary energy consumption

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>the amount of food that an individual consumes >The unit of measurement of dietary energy is the kilocalorie (kcal) or Calorie in the United States

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What do most humans derive most of their kilocalories through consuming

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cereal grain

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What three cereal grains account for nearly 90% of all grain production

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wheat, rice, and corn

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Protein

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>a nutrient needed for growth and maintenance of the human body >Developed and developing regions typically differ most in their primary sources of protein consumed <Developed Countries - leading source of protein is meat (beef, pork, and poultry) products <Developing Countries - leading source of protein is cereal grains

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Pastoral Nomadism

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•It is based on the herding of domesticated animals on a seasonal basis •Various approaches combine some reliance on sedentary agriculture with the herding of livestock •It is practiced in dry climates, where planting of crops is impossible:Saudi Arabia, North and East Africa, Turkey, Central Asia, and Mongolia • About 15 million pastoral nomads, but they occupy about 20% of Earth's land area - number is declining

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Shifting Cultivation

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A migratory, field rotation system found in areas of Tropical Rainforests climate •Characterized by two distinctive features: - Farmers clear land for planting by slashing vegetation and burning the debris - burn puts nitrogen into the soil - Farmers grow crops on a cleared field for only a few years, until soil nutrients are depleted, and then leave it fallow for many years so the soil can recover •Farmers return to a fallow site as few as 6 years later or as many as 20 years later

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Plantation Farming/Agriculture

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•A large estate in tropical or subtropical areas devoted to the production of a single cash/export crop •Intensive commercial agriculture •The average plantation is much larger in size than the average farm in the USA • Mostly owned by multinational corporations • Each plantation tends to specialize in one (cash or luxury) crop (monoculture) • Climate is the vital element in the production of plantation crops - usually grown in the humid tropics with heavy rainfall

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Dairy Farming

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• Located outside the large cities because of transportation factors • Ring surrounding a city from which milk can be supplied is known as the milkshed area • Challenges: labor intensive and winter feed •cool climate

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Grain Farming

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•Distinguished from mixed crop and livestock farming, because crops are grown primarily for human consumption •Farms sell their output to manufacturers of food products, such as breakfast cereals and bread • Characteristics of a typical grain farm: heavily mechanized; farms large in areal extent; and oriented to consumer preferences •often grown in temperate grass lands

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Mediterranean Agriculture

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•Every site practicing this form of agriculture borders a sea, and most are on west coasts of continents •Prevailing sea winds provide moisture and moderate the winter temperatures -moist winter • Along the Mediterranean Sea, olives and grapes are two most important cash crops • Approximately half of the land here is used to grow cereals

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von Thünen's Model

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• Farm products would be grown in a series of concentric zones outward from a city (market center) •a closed model -totally unaffected by outside influence, no trade connections with the outside world

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Organic Farming

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•Crops grown without application of herbicide and pesticides to control weeds •Worldwide 75 million acres or 1% of all farms (2013) •Australia, Argentina, and USA/China

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Development

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>implies a process of of improving the material conditions of people through diffusion of knowledge and technology > process of improving a person's prospects of leading a long and healthy life, acquiring knowledge, and obtaining adequate resources

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Three basic dimensions of human development

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health, education, and living standards

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Human development index(HDI)

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>measures the level of development of every country Four variables: <The GNI (PPP) per capita <life expectancy at birth, <the adult literacy rate < the gross enrollment in education as a % of the total school-age population

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Gross national income (GNI)

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the market value of all final goods and services produced in a country in a given year, including money that leaves (-) and enters the country (+)

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Gross domestic product (GDP)

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similar except it doesn't account for money entering and leaving the country

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Purchasing power parity (PPP)

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>an adjustment made to the GNI to account for differences among countries in the cost of goods. >PPP determines the relative value of two currencies

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Economic Structure

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Primary sector:(basic production) agriculture, forestry, mining, fishing. Secondary sector:(production of goods) industry, construction, craft. Tertiary Sector:(services) trade,banks, transport,culture,education,health

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Indicators of development

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>Access to Knowledge: UN considers years of schooling to be the most critical measure of the ability of an individual to gain access to knowledge needed for development. >A Long and Healthy Life: UN considers good health to be an important measure of development. Main health indicator contributing to the HDI is life expectancy at birth.

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Inequality-Adjusted HDI (IHDI)

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•IHDI modifies the HDI to account for inequality within a country • The lowest score means highest inequality •HDI=IHDI means perfect equality (0 for Norway and Australia)

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Gender Inequality Index(GII)

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•Considers: empowerment (2), laborforce (1), and reproductive health (2) >GII values range from 0 to 1 • Zero value = No inequality between men and women • One = highest inequality between men and women (i.e., women fare as poorly as possible in all three measures)

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Core and Periphery

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•developed by Immanuel Wallerstein in 1974

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Self-sufficiency (balanced growth) Path

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•Countries encourage domestic production of goods, discourage foreign ownership of businesses and resources, and protect domestic businesses form international competition •Most popular for most of 20th century •Promote self-sufficiency by setting barriers that limit the import of goods from other countries - Fixing quotas, imposing high taxes, requiring licenses • Businesses are not forced to compete with international corporations

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Problems with self-sufficiency

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•Inefficiency - have little incentive to improve quality, lower production cost, reduce prices, or increase production •Large bureaucracy - encourage abuse and corruption

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International trade Path

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•Countries open themselves to foreign investment and international markets •Became more popular beginning in the late 20th century • Calls for a country to identify its distinctive or unique economic assets • The sale of these products in the world markets brings needed funds for development

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Problems with International Trade Path

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•Uneven resource distribution •Increased dependence on developed countries •Market decline

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ROSTOW MODEL

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•In 1960, Walt W. Rostow proposed a five-stage model of development known as Modernization Model or The Classical Model of Development Five stages *Traditional Society *Preconditions to Take-off *Take-off: *Drive to Maturity *Age of High Mass Consumption

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Traditional Society:

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First stage. This stage is characterized by a subsistence, agricultural based economy, with intensive labor and low levels of trading, and a population that does not have a scientific perspective on the world and technology.

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Preconditions to Take-off

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Second stage. Here, a society begins to develop manufacturing, and a more national/international, as opposed to regional, outlook.

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Take-off

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Third Stage. Rostow describes this stage as a short period of intensive growth, in which industrialization begins to occur, and workers and institutions become concentrated around a new industry.

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Drive to Maturity:

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Fourth Stage. This stage takes place over a long period of time, as standards of living rise, use of technology increases, and the national economy grows and diversifies.

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Age of High Mass Consumption

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Fifth stage. At the time of writing, Rostow believed that Western countries, most notably the United States, occupied this last "developed" stage. Here, a country's economy flourishes in a capitalist system, characterized by mass production and consumerism.

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