Child Psych – Flashcards
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refers to the inner processes and products of the mind that lead to "knowing." It includes all mental activity-- attending, remembering, symbolizing, categorizing, planning, reasoning, problem solving, creating, and fantasizing.
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Cognition
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Piaget's theory that viewed children as discovering, or constructing virtually all knowledge about their world through their own activity, his theory is described as a ____ _____ to cognitive development.
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Constructive approach
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specific psychological structures which organized ways of making sense of experience.
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Schemes
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internal depictions of information that the mind can manipulate.
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Mental representations
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involves building schemes through direct interaction with the environment.
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Adaptation
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we use our current schemes to interpret the external world.
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Assimulation
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we create new schemes or adjust old ones after noticing that our current way of thinking does not capture the environment completely.
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Accomodation
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Piaget's term for this back-and-forth movement between equilibrium and disequilibrium.
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Equilibriation
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a process that occurs internally, apart from direct contact with the environment. Once children form new schemes, they rearrange them, linking them with other schemes to create a strongly interconnected cognitive system.
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Organization
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spans the first two years of life. Its name reflects Piaget's belief that infants and toddlers "think" with their eyes, ears, hands, and other sensorimotor equipment. They cannot yet carry out many activities mentally.
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The sensorimotor stage
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provides a special means of adapting their first schemes. It involves stumbling onto a new experience caused by the baby's own motor activity. The reaction is "circular" because, as the infant tries to repeat the event again and again, a sensorimotor response that originally occurred by chance strengthens into a new scheme.
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Circular reaction
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coordinating schemes deliberately to solve simple problems.
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Intentional, or goal-directed behavior
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the understanding that objects continue to exist when they are out of sight. But this awareness is not yet complete.
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Object permanence
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an error babies still make. if they reach several times for an object at one hiding place (A), then see it moved to another (B), they still search for it in the first hiding place (A).
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A-not-B search error
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the ability to remember and copy the behavior of models who are not present.
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Deferred imitation
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in which children act out everyday and imaginary activities.
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Make-believe play
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may habituate babies to a physical event (expose them to the event until their looking declines) to familiarize them with a situation in which their knowledge will be tested. Or they may simply show babies an expected event (one that follows physical laws) and an unexpected event (a variation of the first event that violates physical laws). Heightened attention to the unexpected event suggests that the infant is "surprised" by a deviation from physical reality- and, therefore, is aware of that aspect of the physical world.
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Violation-of-expectation method
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applying a solution strategy from one problem to other relevant problems.
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Analogical problem solving
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the realization that words can be used to cue mental images of things not phisically present-- a symbolic capacity called _____ _____ that emerges around the first birthday.
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Displaced reference
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poorer performance after a video than a live demonstration.
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Video deficit effect
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which spans the years 2 to 7, the most obvious change is an extraordinary increase in representational, or symbolic, activity.
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Preoperational stage
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the make-believe with others that is under way by the end of the second year and increases rapidly in complexity during early childhood.
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Sociodramatic play
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viewing a symbolic object as both an object in its own right and a symbol.
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Dual representation
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mental representations of actions that obey logical rules.
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Operations
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failure to distinguish others' symbolic viewpoints from one's own.
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Egocentrism
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refers to the ides that certain physical characteristics of objects remain the same, even when their outward appearance changes.
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Conservation
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their understanding is centered, or characterized by.
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Centration
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the ability to go through a series of steps in a problem and then mentally reverse direction, returning to the starting point.
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Reversibility
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the organization of objects into classes and subclasses on the basis of similarities and differences.
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Hierarchial classification
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extends from about 7 to 11 years, marks a major turning point in cognitive development. Thought becomes far more logical, flexible, and organized.
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Concrete Operational stage
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the ability to order items along a quantitative dimension, such as length or weight.
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Seriation
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The concrete operational child can also seriate mentally.
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Transitive inference
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mental representations of familiar large-scale spaces, such as their neighborhood or school.
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Cognitive maps
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they develop the capacity for abstract, systematic, scientific thinking.
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Formal operational stage
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when faced with a problem, they start with a hypothesis, or prediction about variables that might affect an outcome, from which they deduce logical, testable inferences. Then they systematically isolate and combine variables to see which of these inferences are confirmed in the real world.
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Hypothetico-deductive reasoning
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adolescents' ability to evaluate the logic of propositions (verbal statements) without referring to real-world circumstances.
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Propositional thought
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Children's self-directed speech is now called _____ ____ instead of egocentric speech.
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Private speech
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a range of tasks too difficult for the child to do alone but possible with the help of adults and more skilled peers.
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Zone of proximal development
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the process whereby two participants who begin a task with different understandings arrive at a shared understanding.
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Intersubjectivity
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adjusting the support offered during a teaching session to fit the child's current level of performance.
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Scaffolding
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a broader concept than scaffolding. It refers to shared endeavors between more expert and less expert participants, without specifying the precise features of communication.
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Guided participation
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awareness and understanding of various aspects of thought.
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Metacognition
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a coherent understanding of people as mental beings, which they revise as they encounter new evidence.
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Theory of mind
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the process of continually monitoring and controlling progress toward a goal- planning, checking outcomes, and redirecting unsuccessful efforts.
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Cognitive self-recognition
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a complicated correlational procedure which identifies sets of test items that cluster together, meaning that test-takers who do well on one item in a cluster tend to do well on the others. Distinct clusters are called factors.
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Factor Analysis
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in Spearman's theory, a common underlying factor, called g, believed to influence all aspects of intelligence.
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General intelligence
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in Spearman's theory, a mental ability that is unique to a task.
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Specific intelligence
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refers to skills that depend on accumulated knowledge and experience, good judgement, and mastery of social customs.
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Crystallized intelligence
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depends on more heavily on basic information-processing skills- the ability to detect relationships among stimuli, the speed with which the individual can analyze information, and the capacity of working memory. It can be influenced more by conditions in the brain and less by culture.
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Fluid intelligence
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elaborates the models proposed by Spearman, Thurstone, and Cattel. Carroll represented the structure of intelligence as having three tiers.
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Three-stratum theory of intelligence
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Looks for relationships between aspects (or components) of information processing and children's intelligence test performance.
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Componential analyses
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made up of three broad, interacting intelligences: (1) analytical intelligence, or information-processing skills; (2) creative intelligence, the capacity to solve novel problems; and (3) practical intelligence, application of intellectual skills in everyday situations. Intelligent behavior involves balancing all three intelligences to achieve success in life, according to one's personal goals and the requirements of one's cultural community.
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Triarchic theory of successful intelligence
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a set of emotional abilities that enable individuals to process and adapt to emotional information. To measure it, researchers have devised items tapping emotional skills that enable people to manage their own emotions and interact competently with others.
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Emotional intelligence
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The modern descendant of Alfred Binet's first successful intelligence test is called this. For individuals from age 2 to adulthood. This latest edition measures general intelligence and five intellectual factors: fluid reasoning, quantitative reasoning, knowledge, visual-spatial processing, and working memory.
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Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, Fifth Edition
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is the fourth edition of a widely used test for 6- through 16-year-olds.
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Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children- IV
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assess an individual's potential to learn a specialized activity.
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Aptitude tests
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aim to asses actual knowledge and skill attainment
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Achievement Tests
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instead of labeled IQs it is labeled such because most infant scores do not tap the same dimensions of intelligence assessed in older children.
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Developmental quotients (DQs)
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indicates the extent to which the raw score (number of items passed_ deviates from the typical performance of the same-age individuals.
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Intelligent Quotient (IQ)
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giving the test to a large, representative sample and using the results as the standard for interpreting scores.
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Standardization
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most scores cluster around the mean, or average, with progressively fewer falling toward each extreme. This bell-shaped distribution results whenever researchers measure individual differences in large samples.
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Normal Distribution
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a built-in storehouse of rules common to all human languages.
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Universal grammar
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located in the left frontal lobe, supports grammatical processing and language production
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Broca's area
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located in the left temporal lobe, plays a role in comprehending word meaning
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Wernicke's area
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restructure inaccurate speech
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Recasts
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elaborate, increase complexity
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Expansions
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the smallest sound units that signal a change in meaning, such as the difference between the consonant sounds in "pa" and "ba."
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Phonemes
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The tendency to perceive as identical a range of sounds that belong to the same phonemic class
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Categorical Speech Perception
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a form of communication made up of short sentences with high-pitches, exaggerated expression, clear pronunciation, district pauses between speech segments, clear gestures to support verbal meaning, and repetition of new words in a variety of contexts.
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Infant-directed speech (IDS)
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vowel-like noises
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Cooing
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appears in which infants repeat consonant-vowel combinations, often in long strings such as "bababababa" and "nanananana."
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Babbling
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the child attends to the same object or event as the caregiver, contributes greatly to early language development.
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Joint attention
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the baby points to, touches, or holds up an object while looking at others to make sure they notice.
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Protodeclarative
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the baby gets another person to do something by reaching, pointing, and often making sounds at the same time.
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Protoimperative
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the language they understand
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Comprehension
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the language they use
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Production
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children can connect a new word with an underlying concept after only a brief encounter.
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Fast-mapping
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their vocabularies consist of mainly words that refer to objects.
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Referential style
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compared with referential children, they initially produce many more social formulas and pronouns
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Expressive style
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an error that they may apply words too narrowly
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Underextension
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applying a word to a wider collection of objects and events than is appropriate.
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Overextension
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Young children's fast-mapping is supported by a special part of short-term memory. It permits us to retain speech-based information.
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Phonological store
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the assumption that words refer to entirely separate categories.
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Mutual exclusivity bias
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Once toddlers have acquired about 75 words, a ___ ___ is clearly evident; previous learning of nouns based on shape heightens attention to the shape properties of additional objects.
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Shape bias
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according to one proposal, preschoolers discover many word meanings by observing how words are used in syntax or the structure of sentences.
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Syntactic bootstrapping
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proposes that word-learning strategies emerge out of children's efforts to decipher language. Children draw on a coalition of cues- perceptual, social, and linguistic-that shift in importance with age.
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Emergentist coalition model
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focus on high-content words and omit smaller, less important ones
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Telegraphic speech
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small markers that change the meaning of sentences as in "john's dog" and " he is eating"
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Grammatical morphemes
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a type of error in which children apply a regular morphological rule, they extend it to words that are exceptions
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Overregularication
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they use word meanings to figure out sentence structure. Children might begin grouping together words with "agent qualities" as subjects and words with "action qualities" as verbs. Then they merge these categories with observations of how words are used in sentences.
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Semantic bootstrapping
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the speaker not only comments on why has just been said but also adds a request to get the partner to respond again.
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Turnabout
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in which a sparker initiates a change of topic gradually by modifying the focus of discussion.
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Shading
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what a speaker means to say, even if the form of the utterance is not perfectly consistent with it.
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Illocutionary intent
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to communicate effectively we must produce clear verbal messages and recognize when messages we receive are unclear so we can ask for more information.
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Referential communication skills
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language adaptations to social expectations.
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Speech registers
