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Public Speaking

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The process of presenting a message to an audience

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Empowerment

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Having resources, information, and attitudes that lead to action to achieve a desired goal

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Critical Thinking

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Analyzing information to judge its accuracy and relevance; Making judgments about the conclusions presented in what you see, hear, and read

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Source

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The public speaker

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Encode

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To translate ideas and images into verbal and nonverbal symbols

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Code

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A verbal or nonverbal symbol for an idea of image

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Message

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The content of a speech and the mode of its delivery

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Decode

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To translate verbal or nonverbal symbols into idea and images

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Channels

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The visual and auditory means by which a message is transmitted from sender to receiver

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Receiver

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A listener or audience member

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External Noise

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Physical sounds that interfere with communication

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Internal Noise

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A physiological or psychological interference with communication

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Feedback

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Verbal and nonverbal responses provided by an audience to a speaker

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Context

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The environment or situation in which a speech occurs

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Rhetoric

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The use of words and symbols to create meaning and achieve a goal

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Declamation

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The delivery of an already famous speech

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Elocution

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The expression of emotion through posture, movement, gesture, facial expression, and voice

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3 Models of Communication

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1) Action 2) Interaction 3) Transaction

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Action - Source

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A public speaker is a source of information and ideas for an audience. The job of the source or speaker is to encode, or translate, the ideas and images in his or her mind into the verbal or nonverbal symbols (a code) that an audience can recognize

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Action - Message

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The message in public speaking is the speech itself - both what is said and how it is said

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Action - Channel

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A message is usually transmitted from sender to receiver via two channels: visually and auditory. Audience members see the speaker and decode his or her nonverbal symbols - eye contact, facial expressions, posture, gestures, and dress

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Action - Receiver

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The receiver of the message is the individual audience member, whose decoding of the message will depend on his or her own particular blend of past experiences, attitudes, beliefs, or values

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Action - Noise

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Anything that interferes with the communication of the message is called noise. External noise is noise that may make it difficult for audience members to hear or concentrate on a speech. Internal noise may stem from either physiological or psychological causes and may directly affect either the source or the receiver

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Interaction - Feedback

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Without an audience to hear and provide feedback, public speaking serves little purpose

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Interaction - Context

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A public speaking experience is the environment or situation in which the speech occurse. It includes such elements as the time, the place, and the speaker's and audience's cultural traditions and expectations

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Transaction

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The two-way exchange of communication. Transactive models focus instead on communication as simultaneous process where speaker and audience both send and receive messages

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3 Western Historical Ages of Public Speaking

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1) Golden Age of Public Speaking 2) 19th and 20th Century Age of Political Oratory 3) The Technological Age of Public Speaking

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Golden Age of Public Speaking

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4th Century BCE is the golden age of rhetoric in the Greek Republic because it was during this time that the philosopher Aristotle formulated guidelines for speakers that we still follow today

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19th and 20th Century Age of Political Oratory

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Abolitionists and suffragists speak out for change; frontier lecture circuits flourish

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The Technological Age of Public Speaking

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Electronic media makes it possible to reach vast audiences. A new era of speech-making uses rapidly evolving technology and media while drawing on a rich heritage of public speaking

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5 Canons of Public Speaking

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Invention Arrangement Style Memory Delivery

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Invention

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The creative process of developing or discovering your ideas and insights

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Arrangement

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How the speech is organized

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Style

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Your choice of words

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Memory

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The extent to which you use notes or rely on your memory to share your ideas

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Delivery

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The nonverbal expression of your message

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Strategies to Build Confidence

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-Know Your Audience -Don't Procrastinate -Select and Appropriate Topic -Prepare -Be Organized -Know Your Introduction and Your Conclusion -Make Practice Real -Breathe -Channel Your Nervous Energy -Visualize Your Success -Giver Yourself A Mental Pep Talk -Focus on Your Message, Not on Your Fear -Look for Positive Support -Seek Speaking Opportunities -Focus on What You Have Accomplished, Not on Your Fear

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Speech Topic

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The key focus of the content of a speech

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General Purpose

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The overarching goal of the speech - to inform, persuade, or entertain

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Specific Purpose

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A concise statement of the desired response, indicating what you want your listeners to remember, feel, or do when you finish speaking

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Central Idea

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A one-sentence summary of the speech content

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Main Ideas

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The key points of a speech

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Disposition

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The organization and arrangement of ideas and illustrations; introduction, body, conclusion. Keep speech concise and organized

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3 Strategies for Selecting and Narrowing Your Topic

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-"Who is the audience?" (gear towards demographic) -"What are my interests, talents, and experiences?" (Orient around passions and strengths, familiarity) -"What is the occasion?" (circumstances)

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Supporting Material

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Facts, examples, definitions, quotations, stories, etc.

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Strategies for Gathering Supporting Material

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-Keep it balanced and interesting, make sure to have facts and examples for substance but then balance it with quotes and stories to keep the audience's attention -Include visual aids of PPTs which would serve as visual supports and as means of keeping audience attention

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Free Speech Ethics

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Legally protected speech or speech acts. The beliefs, values, and moral principles by which people determine what is right or wrong

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First Amendment

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The amendment of the U.S. Constitution that guarantees free speech; the first of the 10 amendments to the U.S. Constitution known collectively as the Bill of Rights

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Speech Act

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A behavior, such as flag burning, that is viewed by law as nonverbal communication and is subject to the same protections and limitations as verbal speech

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Ethical Speech Accomodation

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Speech that is responsible, honest, and tolerant. Sensitivity to the feelings, needs, interests, and backgrounds of other people

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5 Strategies for Speaking Ethically

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1) Have a clear, responsible goal 2) Use sound evidence and reasoning 3) Be sensitive to and tolerant of differences 4) Be honest 5) Don't plagiarize

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Plagiarism

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Presenting someone else's words or ideas as though they were one's own

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Patchwriting

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Failing to give credit for competing phrases taken from another source

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Oral citation

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The spoken presentation of such information about a source as the author, title, and year of the publications

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Written Citation

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The presentation in print of such information about a source as the author, title, and year of publication, usually formatted according to the conventional style guide

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Credibility

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An audience's perception of a speaker as competent, knowledgeable, dynamic, and trustworthy

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Listening

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The process by which receivers select, attend to, understand, remember, and respond to senders' messages

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Select

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To single out a message from several competing messages

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Attend

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To focus on incoming information for further processing

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Understand

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To assign meaning to the information to which you attend

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Remember

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To recall ideas and information

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Respond

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To react with a change in behavior to a speaker's message

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Working Memory Theory of Listening

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A theory that suggests that listeners find it difficult to concentrate and remember when their short-term working memories are full

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Prejudice

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Preconceived opinions, attitudes, and beliefs, about a person, place, thing, or message

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Listening Styles

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Preferred ways of making sense out of spoken messages. -Relational-Oriented Listeners -Task-Oriented Listeners -Analytical Listeners -Critical Listeners

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Relational-Oriented Listener

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Someone who is comfortable listening to others express feelings and emotions

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Task-Oriented Listener

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Someone who prefers information that is well organized, brief, and precise

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Analytical Listener

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Someone who prefers messages that are supported with facts and details

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Critical Listener

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Someone who prefers to evaluate messages

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Critical Listening

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Evaluating the quality of information, ideas, and arguments presented by a speaker

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Facts

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Information that has been proven to be true by direct observation

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Inference

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A conclusion based on partial information, or an evaluation that has not been directly observed

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Evidence

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The facts, examples, opinions, and statistics that a speaker uses to support a conclusion

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Logic

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A formal system of rules (major and minor premises) used to reach a conclusion

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Reasoning

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The process of drawing a conclusion through evidence

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Rhetorical criticism

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The process of using a method or standards to evaluate the effectiveness and appropriateness of messages

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Symbols

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Words, images, and behaviors that create meaning

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Rhetorical Strategies

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Methods and techniques that speakers use to achieve their speaking goals

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5 Stages of Listening

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1) Selecting a sound or single message 2) Attending (focusing) on a sound and holding the attention of your audience 3) Understanding and making sense out of our experiences 4) Remembering ideas and information 5) Responding to what was heard

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Listening Considerations

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-Personal concerns -Outside distractions -Differences between speech and thought-rate -Listen mindfully and skillfully (ethics) -Prejudice

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5 Barriers to Effective Listening

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1) Information Overload 2) Personal Concerns 3) Outside Distractions 4) Prejudice 5) Differences between speech rate and though rate

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4 Strategies to Becoming a Better Listener

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1) Listen with your eyes as well as your ears 2) Listen Mindfully 3) Listen Skillfully 4) Listen Ethically

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Listening Goals

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-Listening for Pleasure -Listening to Empathize -Listening to Evaluate -Listening for Information

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Strategies for Developing Active Listening

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-Re-sort -Rephrase -Repeat

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4 Strategies for Analyzing and Evaluating Speeches

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-Be descriptive -Be specific -Be positive -Be constructive

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Demographic

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Statistical information about the age, race, gender, sexual orientation, educational level, and religious views of an audience

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Open-ended Questions

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Questions that allow for unrestricted answers by not limiting answers to choices or alternatives

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Close-ended questions

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Questions that offer alternatives from which to choose, such as true/false, agree/disagree, or multiple-choice questions

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Audience Analysis

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The process of examining information about those who are expected to listen to a speech

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Common Ground

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Similarities between a speaker and audience members in attitudes, valued, beliefs, or behavior

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Relationship

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An ongoing connection you have with another person

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Audience Adaptation

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The process of ethically using information about an audience in order to adapt one's message so that it is clear and achieves the speaking objectives

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Demographic Audience Analysis

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Examining demographic information about an audience so as to develop a clear and effective message

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Gender

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The culturally constructed and psychologically based perception of one's self as feminine or masculine

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Sex

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A person's biological status as male or female, as reflected in his or her anatomy and reproductive system

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Culture

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A learned system of knowledge, behavior, attitudes, beliefs, values, and norms that is shared by a group of people

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Ethnicity

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The portion of a person's cultural background that includes such factors as nationality, religion, language, and ancestral heritage, which are shared by a group of people who also share a common geographic origin

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Race

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A person's biological heritage

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Ethnocentricism

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The assumption that one's own cultural perspectives and methods are superior to those of other cultures. Consider Individualistic and Collectivistic cultures.

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Socioeconomic status

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A person's perceived importance and influence based on income, occupation, and education level

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Target audience

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A specific segment of an audience that you most want to influence

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Psychological Audience Analysis

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Examining the attitudes, beliefs, values, and other psychological information about an audience in order to develop a clear and effective message

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Attitude

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An individual's likes and dislikes

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Belief

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An individual's perception of what is true and false

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Value

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Enduring concept of good and bad, right and wrong

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Situational Audience Analysis

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Examination of the time and place of a speech, the audience size, and the speaking occasion in order to develop a clear and effective message

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Brainstorming

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A creative problem-solving technique used to generate many ideas

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3 Guidelines for Selecting a Topic

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1) Consider the audience 2) Consider the occasion 3) Consider yourself

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Behavioral Objecxtive

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Wording a specific purpose in terms of desired audience behavior

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Declarative Sentence

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A grammatically complete sentence, rather than a clause, phrase, or question

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Strategies for developing a central idea

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-A complete declarative sentence -Direct, specific language -A single idea -An audience-centered idea

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Blueprint

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The central idea of a speech plus a preview of the main ideas

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6 Criteria for Evaluating Internet Resources

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-Accountability -Accuracy -Objectivity -Timeliness -Usability -Diversity

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World Wide Web

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The primary information-delivery system of the internet

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Vertical Search Engine

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A website that indexes World Wide Wed information in a specific field

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Boolean Search

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An Advances Web-searching technique that allows a user to narrow a subject or key word search by adding various requirements

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Domain

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Category in which the Web site is located on the Internet, indicated by the last three letters of the site's URL

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Online Databases

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Subscriptions-based electronic resources that may offer access to abstracts and/or the full texts of entries, as well as bibliographical data

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Stacks

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The collection of books in a library

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Preliminary Bibliography

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A list of potential resources to be used in the preparation of a speech

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Types of Supporting Material

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1) Illustrations 2) Descriptions & Explanations 3) Definitions 4) Analogies 5) Statistics

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Illustration

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A story or anecdote that provides an example of an idea, issue, or problem a speaker is discussing

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Brief Illustration

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A story or anecdote that provides an example of an idea, issue, or problem a speaker is discussing

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Extended Illustration

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A detailed example

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Hypothetical Illustration

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An example that might happen but that has not actually occurred

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Description

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A word picture of something

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Explanation

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A statement that makes clear how something is done or why it exists in its present form or existed in its past form

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Definition

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A statement about what a term means or how it is applied in a specific instance

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Definition by Classification

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A "dictionary definition", constructed by both placing a term in the general class to which it belongs and differentiating it from all other members of a class

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Operational Definition

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A statement that shows how something works or what it does

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Analogy

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A comparison

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Literal Analogy

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A comparison between two similar things

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Figurative Analogy

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A comparison between two essentially dissimilar things that share some common feature on which the comparison depends

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Statistics

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Numerical data that summarizes facts or samples

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Primary Source

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The original collector and interpreter of information or data

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Secondary Source

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An individual, organization, or publication that reports information or data gathered by another entity

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Opinions

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Statements expressing an individual's attitudes, beliefs, or values

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Expert Testimony

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An opinion or description offered by someone who is an authority on a subject

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Lay Testimony

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An opinion or description offered by a non-expert who has firsthand experience

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Literary Quotation

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an opinion or description by a writer who speaks in a memorable and often poetic way

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Average Style

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If you have a generally positive approach to communicating in public

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Insensitive Style

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If you have experience public speaking. Low heart rate

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Inflexible Style

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Very anxious about speaking. High heart rate

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Confrontational Style

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When you start with a high heart rate, then tempers off

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Don't Plagiarize!

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Understand what constitutes as plagiarism Understand the consequences of plagiarism Do your own work Cite/Acknowledge your sources

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Research Strategies

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- -Take Notes -Identify Possible Presentation Aids

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5 Organizational Patterns

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1) Topically 2) Chronologically 3) Spatially 4) Causal 5) Problem-Solution

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Primacy

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An arrangement of ideas from the most to least important

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Recency

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Arrangement if ideas from the least to most important

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Complexity

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Arrangement of ideas from the simple to most complex

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Signposting

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Includes previews, transitions, and summaries

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Previews

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Initial and Internal

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Initial Preview

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a statement in the intro of a speech of what the main ideas of the speech will be about

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Internal Preview

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a statement in the body that intros and outlines ideas that will be developed as the speech continually progresses

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Dev speaking Notes

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Choose your tech Use standard outline form Inc intro and conc in abbr form inc central idea, not purpose statem inc supp material and signposts inc delivery cues ("louder" "pause" "walk 2 steps left"

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5 Functions of Introductions

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1) Get the audience's attention 2) Give the audience a reason to listen 3) Introduce the Subject 4) Establish your credibility 5) Preview your main ideas

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Effective Intros

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Illustrations/anecdotes startling facts/stats quotes humor questions references to historical events

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Conclusions

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Summarizing: Re-emphasize central idea in a memorable way, restate main idea Closure: Use verbal/nonverbal cues to signal end of speech, motivate audience to respond

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Effective Conc

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Methods also used for intros references to the intro inspirational appeals or challenges

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Written Language

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Less personal No immediate interaction between writer and reader

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Denotation

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The literal meaning of the word

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Connotaation

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The meaning listeners associate with a word, based on their experience

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Strategies for adapting language to diverse listeners

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Use language audience can understand- clarify and define Use respectful language use unbiased language

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methods of Delivery Style

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-Manuscript Speaking -Memorized Speaking -Impromptu Speaking -Extemporaneous Speaking

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Extemporaneous Speaking

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Takes time to prepare, but can balance polish,

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Developing delivery for diverse audiences

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-Avoid ethnocentrism -Consider using a less dramatic style for high-context listeners (high-context places emphasis on implicit messages) -Consult with speakers who have presented to the same or similar audiences -Monitor your level of intimacy (connection via nonverbal) -Monitor your expression of emotion -Know the code

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Effective computer-generated visual aids

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Keep sights and sounds simple Use a blank slide of "screen black" to control when and what your audience sees Repeat visual elements for unity choose a clear font and be consistent remember color communicates and can enhance/detract from readability Give yourself time to prepare

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Types of Informative Speeches

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Object Procedures People Events Ideas

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Object

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present info on a tangible thing

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Adragogy

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Adult Learning -Actively involve listeners -connect info to their lives -make info relevant and applicable

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Clarifying unfamiliar and complex ideas

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Use Analogies Use vivid descriptions (paint a word picture)

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Appealing to a variety of learning styles

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Auditory learners Visual Print learners Visual Learners Kinesthetic learners - activity

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Enhancing recall

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be redundant Keep it short and simple Slow your flow reinforce ideas (verbally and nonverbally)

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Goals of persuasion

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change or reinforce attitudes change or reinforce beliefs change or reinforce Values change or reinforce Behaviors

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Ethos

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Credibility

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Logos

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logic and reasoning

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Pathos

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emotions

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Motivation

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why we do the stuff we do - underlying internal force that drives people to acheieve goals

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Cognitive Dissonance

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Experiencing a way of thinking that is inconsistent and uncomfortable restore balance and solve the problem by adjusting attitude, beliefs, values, or behaviors (or rejecting that uncomfortable claim)

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Positive motivation

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what will the audience gain

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Negative motivation

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what will the audience lose? Fear appeals

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Audience centered persuasion

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-Consider the audience - demographics/culture -Choose an appropriate topic- should speak to a need or concern. -Persuasive purpose - strive for small shifts rather than dramatic changes.

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Propositions

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statement with which you want your audience to agree -Fact

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Proposition of Fact

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Fact, Starbucks serves coffee

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Proposition of Value

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Moral Judgement, Starbucks serves the best coffee

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Proposition of Policy

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Starbucks should make their coffee more affordable

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Initital Credibility

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your first impression

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Derives credibility

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developed while you speak. Do you est common ground? Support with evidence?

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Terminal credibility

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after you speak. Can include a q;a period

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Inductive reasoning

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arrives at a general conclusion from specific circumstances

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sign

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one thing means that another is happening i.e. where there is smoke there is fire

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Deductive reasoning

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reasoning from a general statement to reach a specific conclusion. Are the general and specific premises true?

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Example

answer

illustrations that clarify a fact

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persuading unreceptive audences

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don't announce what you plan to do begin by finding common ground don't expect a major shift establish credibility further understanding their advocacy

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Persuasive methods of organizations

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Problem-solution: present problem, present solution Refutation Cause and effect Motivated sequence:gain attention, explain a need, provide the satisfaction to that need, visualize how that satisfies the need, give an action step to make it happen

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Kairos

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the circumstances surrounding and necessitating a speech: the occasion

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Epideictic Speeches

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A ceremonial speech Intro: be brief, be accurate Toast: be sincere, be brief Award presentation: refer to occasion, explain history and sig of award, name recipient Nomination Acceptances Keynote Address: importance of topic/meeting, motivate aud Commencement addresses: praise graduates, focus on future Commemorative Addr: present fact about event/people being elerated, inspire aud Eulogies: describe achievement

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