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Charlemagne

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Late 8th century ruler of the Carolingian Empire. Ruled most of Western Europe, which was a stark contrast to the small kingdoms characteristic of this time. Coronated by the Pope as the first Holy Roman Emperor for hundreds of years.

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Magyars

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10th century invaders from central Asian steppes. Plundered the remnants of the Carolingian Empire, causing chaos and destruction. Eventually converted to Latin Christianity and settled in Hungary. Changed notion of "who is a European."

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Normans

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"Northmen", also known as Vikings. Looted Europe from their naval raiding parties from the 8th to 11th centuries. Settled in Normandy as a more permanent base. Also invaded England and led to lasting cultural impressions like "Beowulf." Eventually settled down.

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Feudalism

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A social system common throughout the entire Middle Ages in which lords granted fiefs to their vassals, who pledged services (crops, military service) in return. The chain of lordship extended all the way to the king, in theory. Society was governed by personal ties instead of public political institutions.

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Lords and Vassals

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The lord received an oath of loyalty from his vassals, and pledged to protect them in return. He usually granted them a fief of land as well. This system was called feudalism

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Chivalry

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A traditional code of conduct associated with knighthood, which developed around the 12th century. It involved virtues such as honour, courtly love, courtesy. Notable for playing a large role in many stories of the time, like King Arthur.

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Castellans

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Those who owned castles with which to protect themselves. A strong castle often made castellans almost invincible to the local populace, allowing them to do whatever they wanted. Example: motte and bailey castle, built from the 10th century onwards.

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Peace/Truce of God

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Peace of God: Gave immunity to noncombatants who could not defend themselves, like peasants and clergy. Truce of God: A call to reduce organized violence around the time of the First Crusade (1095). For example, "you cannot fight on Sundays and holy days".

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Cluniac Reform

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Attempt to move the monastic life away from worldly pleasures and temptations, led by Williams of Aquitaine in the 10th century. Ruled solely by the Pope, instead of local lords as had previously been done. New emphasis on prayer, etc. Ironically led to more people, more fame, more fortune

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Pope Gregory VII

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See Investiture Controversy

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Emperor Henry IV

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See Investiture Controversy

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Investiture Controversy

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An 11th century dispute over who had the power to invest bishops with their offices. Famously between Pope Gregory VII and Emperor Henry IV. Led to excommunication of the Emperor before being resolved after Henry famously begged for mercy.

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Council of Clermont

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A council in Clermont (central France) in 1095 where Pope Urban II delivered a sermon to priests and laypeople. In it, he passionately called for a crusade to take back Jerusalem from Muslim invaders. This set the stage for a series of crusades lasting hundreds of years.

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Pope Urban II

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The pope who called for the First Crusade in 1095. See Council of Clermont.

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Alexius Comnenus

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Byzantine emperor around 1100. Began restoring the collapsing empire that he inherited. His appeal for help against the Turks is what triggered Pope Urban II to call for the First Crusade.

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Agricultural Revolution

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Increase in food production around in the 11th century that led to a large population increase. Includes heavy plow and the three-field system.

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Revolt of the Medievalists

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An attack by modern historians on the accuracy of historical accounts of the Middle Ages. We see that the Middle Ages were not as "medieval" as they seem, but instead set the stage for our modern society.

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12th Century Renaissance

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Cultural contexts in the East led to greater development. Also urbanization because of the new agricultural techniques that increased food production. Eventually wiped out by Black Death, but came back with Renaissance.

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Scholasticism

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A method of critical thought developed by Anselm of Canterbury around 1100.

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Anselm of Canterbury

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Bishop of Canterbury around 1100. Called the founder of scholasticism, he created a famous ontological argument. Played a major role in the development of Western theology.

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Thomas Aquinas

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13th century philosopher and theologian. Many modern philosophical ideas started with him. Attempted to blend the teachings of Aristotle with Christianity.

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Affective Piety

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Love of God and the humanity of Christ. We see this in cathedrals, stained glass. Supposed to be impressed by the materialism of religion. Emotional experience.

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Bernard of Clairvaux

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12th century, formed the Bernardians, an order of monks. Dispute with Peter Abelard. 86 sermons on the Song of Songs. Commissioned by Pope to preach Second Crusade, as Urban II had done.

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Transubstantiation

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The belief that the bread and wine of communion literally became the body and blood of Christ because the substance changed, even though the "accidents", like taste and appearance, did not. Allowed this complex theological problem to be solved.

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Pope Innocent III

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Most powerful pope. Ruled around 1200. Called for the 4th crusade, and founded the Papal State. Made papal vassals of most of the rulers of western Europe. Also unified the rites and dogmas of Christianity at the Fourth Lateran Council.

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Fourth Lateran Council

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Held by Innocent III in 1215, issued decrees that reinforced the sacraments as the center of Christian life. Made rules on how to educate clergy, define their qualifications, and govern election of bishops. Still holds sway today.

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Abbasid Caliphate

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Integral to the 12th century Renaissance. Influenced development of philosophy, mathematics, chemistry, etc.

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Troubadors

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A composer and performer of poetry during the Middle Ages. Mainly dealt with chivalry and courtly love. Spread these ideas throughout the population.

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Courtly Love

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A concept of nobly and chivalrously expressed love. Typically not between a husband and wife, but usually adulterous. Contradictory, as it involved erotic desire and spiritual attainment. Selfless pledge of love to a superior woman.

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King Henry II

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12th century king of England. Centralized adminstration with travelling courts that would visit every so often. First to use a jury of peers to try cases, which still occurs today.

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Magna carta

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"Great charter", signed in 1215 by King John. Forced the king to respect traditional feudal privileges of nobles, towns, and clergy. Also followed by subsequent kings as well. Upheld the fundamental principle that even kings had to obey the law.

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Frederick Barbarossa and Frederick II

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12th century HRE. Barbarossa died crossing a river during the Crusades. Frederick II 13th century HRE. Most powerful emperor of the Middle Ages,

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Dominican Order

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13th century order founded by Saint Dominic. Founded to preach the Gospel and to combat heresy, the order is famed for its intellectual tradition, having produced many leading theologians and philosophers. Still exists today.

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Francis of Assisi

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A 13th century who had visions of God which led him to form the Franciscan order. They gave away all their possessions and begged for money on the street. Devoted to equality, they cared for the poor and abandoned.

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Albigensian Crusade

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Early 13th century campaign to eradicate the Cathars and Waldensians in France. Called by Innocent III. The king was happy to help because it expanded his power in a region where it was weak. Was just one example of the papacy showing its power.

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Waldensians

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Followers of Peter Waldo, who in the late 12th century founded an order based on poverty. Similar to Franciscans, but Waldo did not obtain the proper licenses to preach, so they were seen as heretics. Targets of the Albigensian Crusade.

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Persecuting Society

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Gregorian reform and governmentt centralization, desire for uniformity, and deepening of authority through definition, and then persecution, of Others.

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Louis VIII

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13th century king of France, involved in the Albeginsian Crusade.

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King Phillip IV

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King of France around 1300. Expelled the Jews, annihilated the Knights Templar, and argued with Boniface which led to the movement of the papacy to Avignon.

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Vita apostolica

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Apostolic life - that is, to live in poverty and constant prayer or service to God. A central feature of many monastic orders, like the Franciscans and Waldensians.

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Beguines

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Christian lay religious orders that were active in Germany 13th-16th centuries. Their members lived in semi-monastic communities but did not take formal religious vows. Mostly widows of the Crusades.

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Knights Templar

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Crusading Military Order, founded 1119; acquired considerable property and wealth, role as international bankers. Eventually accused of sodomy, necrophilia by king and pope around 1300.

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Pope Boniface VIII

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In 1302, proclaims: "Whoever, therefore, shall resist this power, ordained by God, resists the ordination of God... It is altogether necessary to salvation for every human being to be subject to the Roman Pontiff."

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Avignon

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Location of the Babylonian Captivity of the Papacy. During the 14th century, there were 7 popes here. Each Pope (all French) fell more and more under the influence of the French crown.

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Little Ice Age

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A period of shifting temperatures that began in the early 1300s. Made it impossible to grow crops in Northern Europe, severely reducing harvests. Led to famine conditions.

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Mongol Conquest

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Invasions by Genghis Khan and his warriors in the early 13th century. Killed up to 40 million people, but established the Mongol Peace. Secured caravan routes like the Silk Road, leading to increased interaction between Europe and China (and the rest of Asia).

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Ghengis Khan

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Leader of the Mongol Conquest.

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Petrarch

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Known for starting the Renaissance. First humanist, lived in the 14th century.

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The Black Death

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A plague around 1350 that wiped out a huge portion of Europe's population at the time. Paradoxically led to more opportunities for those who survived, as workers were in high demand.

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Hundred Years War

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War between England and France around 1350-1450. Began when William the Conqueror began ruling England while also serving as the duke of Normandy, therefore owing homage to the King of France. Edward III refused, starting the war.

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Sultan Mehmed II

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Conquered Constantinople in 1453, ending the Byzantine Empire. This event is often seen as the end of the Middle Ages.

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Humanism

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The focus on ancient Greek and Roman texts during the Renaissance. Emphasized poetry, grammar, and ethics. Development of critical methods to edit the texts and regain the original meaning.

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Civic Virtue

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The cultivation of habits that are beneficial for the success of the community.

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Lorenzo Valla

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Follower of Petrarch after he died, during the 15th century.

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Lorenzo de Medici

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Grandson of Cosimo. Continued his grandfather's ways, but as "The Magnificent", was a little too visible for the citizens. Concentrated on building villas and collecting gems instead of acting as patron for the greater good. His opulence undermined public support for the Medici family.

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Cosimo de Medici

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15th century patron of the Renaissance. Effectively took control of Florence, although not as a prince. His behind-the-scenes rule allowed him to keep up appearances and not anger the citizens. Used his own face on the Magi picture.

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Pico Della Mirandola

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15th century, wrote "Oration on the Dignity of Man." Also wrote 900 theses on science and religion. These were key texts of Renaissance humanism.

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Marsilio Ficino

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15th century influential humanist philosopher. In touch with every major academic thinker and writer of his day, and the first translator of Plato's complete extant works into Latin

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Christian Hebraism

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The belief that Christian truths could be found in works of Jewish myscisticm. Followers often hired Jewish tutors to explain Hebrew writings to them. Showed that people of different religious backgrounds can still learn from each other.

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Hermes Tristmegistus

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The purported author of the Hermetic Corpus, a series of sacred texts that are the basis of Hermeticism. Possibly one of the three Magi.

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Italian Communes

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Had sworn allegiances of mutual defense (both physical defense and of traditional freedoms) among the citizens of a town or city. In Italy, they were real city-states based on partial democracy. Examples are Florence and Venice. Were often controlled by princes though (or Medici).

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Guilds

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An association of artisans or merchants who control the practice of their craft in a particular town. Had a huge influence on trade. An entire system of apprentice, journeyman, master sprung up. People would give their children to a master so they could be trained in the craft.

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Jacquerie

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A popular revolt in late-medieval Europe by peasants that took place in northern France in the summer of 1358 during the Hundred Years' War.

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Joan of Arc

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15th century. Helped in several French victories during the Hundred Years War. Was captured by the English and killed for heresy due to

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Savonarola

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An Italian Dominican friar and preacher active in Renaissance Florence around 1500, and known for his prophecies of civic glory and calls for Christian renewal. Denounced corruption and abuse of the poor. Was eventually tried for heresy and burned. "Bonfires of the vanities."

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Pope Leo X

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Son of Lorenzo the Magnificent, Pope around 1500. Granted indulgences for donators, and failed to address Luther's theses that eventually grew into the Reformation.

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