Chapters 15-16 HISTORY – Flashcards

A republic featured leaders elected by the populace whereas a monarchy had an hereditary absolute ruler. However, in practice, Italian Renaissance republics were often corrupt and controlled by a small group. For example, Venice's republic was dominated by a small group of merchants aristocrats. Other states, such as the Papal States and the Kingdom of Naples were monarchies, ruled absolutely, and often had political ties to other European kingdoms.

Machiavelli's major beliefs focused primarily on the acquisition and maintenance of power above all. He broke with previous writers in stating that morality should not dominate the decision-making of a true prince. Although a prince should strive to do good, he should also be willing and ready to do evil if needed. Machiavelli also believed that humans were generally selfish and greedy. TLDR: ends justify the means.

Flourishing trade, high urbanization, and the absence of one dominant central state led to the rise of the Italian states during the Renaissance.

Machiavelli's work influenced political power in the west by influencing and affecting many major politicians throughout history and by presenting an alternative view of power and its relationship with morality.

Society during the renaissance was characterized by a focus on the family, a three class society dominated by the nobility, the end of serfdom, and the rise of urban societies.

Vernacular language eventually became the preferred language used to produce books because it was understood by a much greater portion of the general population than languages such as Latin. As such, it made the books more accessible to the general populace and brought more sales to publishers and writers.

Ultimately, humanism made Renaissance education more secular than it was before, brought scholastic focus upon the liberal arts, and sought to prepare students to be good citizens.

Humanism helped define the Renaissance by serving as its representative belief system which both affected almost every aspect of Renaissance life from education to gender and survived past the Renaissance period to influence the modern world.

The goals of education during the Renaissance, namely the creation of good citizens, was heavily influenced by the ideals of humanism. Furthermore, liberal arts, the basic core of humanism, was also the focus of attention in Renaissance schools.

The humanist approach to classical Latin led to its widespread use in the writings of scholars and other writers. Humanism also influenced artists to emphasize the human-focused worldview. For instance, Masaccio mastered the laws of perspective in his frescoes, thus creating realistic styled works.

The works of Northern European artists were generally less detailed, more compact, and based on different mediums than those of Italian artists.

Indulgences were documents approved by the church which supposedly could absolve someone from their sins and/or reduce the amount of time a soul had to spend in purgatory. Because they could, in essence, grant salvation, most common people desired them and would go on pilgrimages to relic sites to acquire them. The wealthier would simply purchase them from churchmen, including officials and monks, who would sell indulgences to fund the constructions of new churches or perhaps even to enrich themselves.

It can be said that Luther did not start his revolution on his own because public discontent with the church already existed, manifesting itself in the forms of mystical movements and increased personal devotion. Furthermore, the doctrines and beliefs of Erasmus had also been written and spread by the time of Luther. On a more practical level, the various German princes supported Luther's revolution both as a way to take the property of the Catholic churches in their domain and to express their discontent at the presence of Papal power in their states.

Erasmus and Christian humanism paved the way for the Protestant reformation by creating a social atmosphere conducive and open to church reform and by establishing doctrines that called for reform within the Catholic church and a return to simpler Christianity.

Martin Luther at first wanted to ascertain the certainty of salvation. He also made his theses public which later spread the whole of Germany. He also talked to the princes to overthrown the papacy and establish a reformed church.

The Holy Roman Emperor was forced to seek peace with the Lutheran princes because he could not defeat them in battle.

Henry VIII needed the Pope's permission to divorce Catherine of Aragon because in Catholicism divorce was not allowed unless it was specifically approved by the church authorities.

The Protestant Reformation in England was largely an artificial change brought about by King Henry VIII and his supporters, who acquired the land, rights, and wealth of the church. Protestant reforms in Switzerland started from Ulrich Zwingli, who began reforms in Zurich. It continued under John Calvin, who had escape to Switzerland from France and would begin his Calvinist doctrine and the establishment of a Calvinist society in Switzerland.

Calvinism became a major form of Protestantism in the mid-sixteenth century because it was spread through the use of the printing press and because Calvinists established their own society in Geneva, thus granting their beliefs a degree of legitimacy.

The English reformation was different from the ones in Europe because it was brought about by Henry VIII, not by an individual thinker, priest, etc., in order to gain church properties and a divorce. He did not, however, begin the reformation for spiritual reasons or other such concerns.

Anabaptists were prosecuted by both Catholics and Protestants because they had many anti-establishment doctrines which were seen as threats to the establishments of both religious orders.

The Reformation affected European society by establishing two conflicting religious orders that dominated the countries of Europe, by starting many religious wars, and by prompting a wave of self-reform in the Catholic church.

The increasing threat of Protestantism, the founding of new Catholic orders, and a prevailing Catholic belief that they were at threat led to the Catholic Reformation in the 16th century.