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Congress of Vienna

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(1814) meeting of Napoleon's victors to devise a stable territorial arrangement: Austria, Britain, Russia, Prussia and France. Restored France to 1790 boundaries and divided up the remaining land to create a Europe that was consolidated mostly into countries with balanced power. Ensure balance of power and protect each other from aggression from the others. Austria and Britain allied to restrain ambitions of Russia and Prussia.

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Quadruple Alliance

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Alliance formed (1815) between Great Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia to protect against future French aggression and preserve the status quo.

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Conservatism

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This political doctrine stressed tradition and support for the established monarchical authority (the King)

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Conservatism

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A political ideology that defends the traditional monarchical principle of authority against the onslaught of revolutionary events. Reactionary: censorship and repression to eliminate constitutional, democratic, parliamentarian or nationalist sentiments. Decrees against free speech and civil liberties

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Liberalism

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This political doctrine embraces individual liberties and warned of the tyranny of authority (government.

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Liberalism

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A political ideology about freedom of the individual and corruptibility of authority. Appealed to European middle classes. Embraced right to vote, civil liberties, legal equality, constitutional government, parliamentary sovereignty and free-market economy. Less government is better government. Humans are basically good and needs freedom to flourish. Liberalism promotes freedom. Slave trade abolished in UK 1832.

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Utilitarianism

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This socio-political ideal set forth that government's purpose was to provide the "most happiness for the most people", cause and effect.

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Utilitarianism

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A liberal doctrine that argued government's role is to provide the greatest happiness of the greatest number - from Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832). Only the pursuit of social harmony justifies interference with individual liberty.

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Romanticism

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literary and artistic movement throughout Europe from late 18th to mid 19th century which valued creativity based on the supremacy of human freedom.. Poetry was the result of "the spontaneous overflew of powerful feelings rather than formal and disciplined intellectual exercise. William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge. Rebellion against confining classical forms (like geometric gardens). Didn't accept reason over emotion. Beauty of untamed nature.

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Nationalism

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political doctrine glorifying the nation of people, its collective cultural identity, unifying as a community/nation for advancing their nation against the absolutism of kings and tyranny of foreign domination. Civil liberties defeated by national interest. Valued vernacular languages and folklore. Also personification of nation to create identity

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Socialism

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Political movement which looked to reorganize society whereby workers would control the means of production and gain the profits from labour.

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Socialism

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An ideology in favour of social organization and social status. Alternative to liberalism. Right of workers to profit and control their own lives. People hold the means of production.

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Joseph Proudhon

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(1809-1865) Socialist. Thought industrialization had destroyed worker's rights; that workers had the right to profit from their own labour. Argued for limited possession. Hated government.

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Communist Manifesto

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(1848) Karl Marx and Friedrick Engels. Described the dire situation of the working classes in the 1840s. Thought workers' alienation would result in class war against capitalists (owners of means of production). Workers of the world unite.

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French Revolution of 1830

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took just a couple days/weeks. Against the king (restored Bourbon: Charles X) efforts to restore monarchy's power. Liberal thinking of French bourgeois combined with severe winter that lead to famine. In spring 1830 workers in Paris revolted and it spread to countryside

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Peterloo Massacre

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English cavalry killed protestors in a crowd of 80k people gathered at St Peter's Field outside Manchester to hear speeches for parliamentary reform and universal male suffrage. Also, new corn laws inspired rally.

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Chartism

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political movement in 1830s based on the People's Charter. Six demands: universal suffrage for men; secret ballots; salaries for parliamentarians; elimination of property requirement for MPs, equal electoral districts and annual elections.

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Great Reform Bill of 1832

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Britain's electoral system was antiquated because internal migrations to cities during industrializations had created "rotten" or "pocket" boroughs. Reformers wanted to reassign parliamentary seats based on equitable representation of populations. Lower classes agitated and reform was finally made to avoid civil war. The reforms strengthened industrial and commercial elites in towns and enfranchised most of the middle class.

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Revolutions of 1848

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wave of revolutions across Europe from west to east in 1848 -1850 France, Italy, German states, Austria Hungary and Bohemia, Also to lesser extent Switzerland, Denmark and Romania. Based on unique circumstances in each country. Roots in food crises, agitation for democracy and independence from foreign rule (national sentiments). Involved first attempt at uniting German states. Also lots of unrest among different ethnic groups in Austria Hungary (Czechs, Hungary, Bugaria etc). End of the European concert formed by alliances 1815-ish.

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Giuseppe Mazzini

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(1805-1872) an Italian liberal nationalist. Wanted democratic revolution against Austrian overlords. Became head of the Republic of Rome in 1849 when Pope Pius IX fled Rome. Mazzini was supported by Garibaldi and the red shirts until the French troops restored the pope. Resistance to troops (including Austrian Hapsburgs) failed because Italian nations didn't work in unity.

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The Eastern Question

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anticipated fall of Ottoman Empire that lead to Crimean War.

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Crimean War

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This war broke out in 1853, when Russia invaded the Ottoman Empire, bringing France and England to declare war and force Russia out.

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Crimean War

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(1853-6) Russia sought power in the Balkans. Fought Ottoman Empire for the Bosporous and Dardanelles. Russia originally demanded right to protect Greek Orthodox in Ottoman Empire. Russia invaded Danube territories. Great Britain and France defended Ottomans. Piedmont Sardinia joined against Russia. Ambitions, prestige and Balkan rivalry motivated. The war nobody won. Russia ceased active role in Europe. Russia lost. End of peace of Quadruple Alliance.

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Resorgimento

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Italian reunification movement. Giuseppes Mazzini (moralist) and Garibaldi (military) and Cavour (politician). Cavour was premier for Piedmont-Sardinia focus of unification. Cavour reformed administration. got involved in Crimean war to secure status. Allied with France against Austria and used plebiscite to unite many Italian provinces under Piedmont's king. Other Italian provinces wanted to oust their Austrian rulers and Garibaldi helped. Garibaldi gave his united territories to Cavour

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Realpolitik

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pursuit of political ends using any means; practical politics;. including illegal and violent methods. Bismark used it to further Prussian interests.

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Otto von Bismark

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Prussian Junker who used realpolitiks to unify German states under a Prussian King. Allied with liberals (although he was reactionary) to use their nationalism. 1862 became minister-president of Prussian cabinet and foreign minister. Reoorganized Prussian army without Diet's approval. Allied and broke alliances to invade and unite German states. War with Austria (Seven Weeks War in 1866) unites Germany without Austria. Then provoked Franco-Prussian war, to create sense of unity among newly-united German states. Proclaimed German Empire 1871: second Reich under Kaiser Wilhelm I

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Austro-Hungarian Empire

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at end of Austria's seven week war with Prussia, which demonstrated that Bismark didn't want Austria in united Germany, Austria had to deal with internal nationalities. 1867 Hapsburg Empire formed Dual monarchy of two independent and equal states under one ruler - emperor of Austria and King of Hungary. Ethnic groups within the Hapsburg empire were agitating for total independence.

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Franco-Prussian War

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(1870-71) Provoked by Bismark who created the impression a French ambassador had insulted the Prussian king, then leaked it to the press which inflamed French and Prussians. French (ruled by Napoleon III) invaded but were unorganized. Germans won thru greater numbers and deployment strategies.

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Napoleon III

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Nephew of Emperor Napoleon I. Used Napoleonic legend to win elections in 1848 to become France's first president under universal suffrage for men. Seized power in 1851 via coup d' état and became dictator of second French empire. Discards constitution, taking France back to 1791. Leads period of economic growth: rebuilt Paris, extends French power overseas (Crimean War, war for Italian unification (which got some territory for France Nice and Savoy), Constructed Suez Canal between Mediterranean and Red Sea. Losses thru involvement in mexico and Franco-Prussian war. Went into exile.

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William Gladstone

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liberal, Prime Minister 1868-74 Best government is least government. (began as a Tory). Voted for free trade, lowered taxes, abolished tariffs, cut defense spending, disestablished Anglican Church in Ireland. Reformed army - removed purchase of commissions. Reformed civil service to separate it from political influence. Secret Ballot introduced. Made elementary schooling available to everyone.. Considered private philanthropy best way to handle social problems.

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Benjamin Disraeli

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conservative, supported State intervention and regulation on behalf of the weak and disadvantaged. Sponsored Factory act 1875 (max 56hr week), public Health Act (sanitary code), minimum housing standards, Trade Union Act (permitted picketing).

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Alexander II

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"Al the Great," Czar of Russia (1855-81) Reformed: emancipated serfs but it created problems cause ex-serfs struggled to pay for their land because farms were too small/farming too unproductive. Reformed credit and banking, constructed rail, introduced local assemblies to govern locally (zemstvos) removed corporate punishment, reformed military on Prussian model.

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Populist Movement

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movement formed by Russian students ordered home from studying in Switzerland, traveling around Russian village to educate newly liberated Russian peasants. Other educated Russians (called Will of the People) decided to assassinate Alexander II. Reforms had increased expectations for political transformation that failed to happen. Eventually succeeded in assassinating Alexander II in St Petersburg 1881.

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Realism

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rejection of romantic idealism and subjectivity. Disillusioned response to political failures of post 1848. Labeled by Courbet (artist). Scenes of ordinary people in daily lives. Novels depicting the objective and unforgiving monotonous and harsh social world (Dickens)

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Charles Darwin

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Wrote "Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection" (1859). Natural Selection - survival of the fittest - best adapted individuals survive. Reflected contemporary view of progress based on struggle. Public applied the idea to theories of social organization

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Karl Marx

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(1818-83) Das Capital. A sociologist. Focus on class struggle and material basis of it. Society divided: Bourgeoisie owners of the means of production and Proletariat - landless workers. Labour is the source of all value, yet the bourgeois employers deny workers the profit of their work buy refusing to pay them a decent wage.

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Paris Commune

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German armies fighting back against Napoleon III-led France in the Franco-Prussian war (July-Sept 1870) take France but Paris refuses to give up. Bismarck's troops lay siege to Paris. siege ended with elections and France voted to end war. However Parisians revolt against rest of France giving into the Prussians and siege continues (March - May 1871) Government troops entered the city and crushed the commune. Demonstrated the power of patriotism to inspire sacrifice.

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Schlieffen Plan

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German war plan in First World War, developed by Prussian General. In the likely event of war with Russia, Germany would first launch a devastating offensive against France via neutral Belgium, to take France out of the war, because allied Russia and France surrounded Germany. It was later modified to send some divisions to the eastern frontier too.

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Archduke Ferdinand

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heir to Habsburg throne (Austria-Hungarian throne) assassinated by a Serbian in Sarajevo in June 1914, which lead to Austria-Hungary making reparation demands that, when they were not met, precipitated the First World War.

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1st Battle of Marne

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between 6 -10 September 1914. Series of battles fought at beginning of WW1 in France, starting north east of Paris. German and Allied armies outflank each other "race to the sea" north to Ypres. Allied strategic victory is that they resisted the German advance.

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Tannenberg

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August 1914, major battle at beginning of WW1, in which Germany beat entire Russian Second Army and about 100k soldiers taken prisoner.

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Verdun

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1916 spearhead offensive battle on the western front initiated by Germany (General Falkenhayn) in which they hoped to crush France and taken them out of the war, however Verdun was very good defensive position and French held Verdun for 10 months. Nearly a million killed. French drew reserve troops from the Somme to help defend. No territory was gained.

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Somme

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July - December 1916. Attempted spearhead battle on the western front initiated by the Allies (General Haig) against Germany high position trenches. More than a million killed

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Passchendaele

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(Flanders, Belgium) Series of offensives by the Allies (British General Haig) between June and November 1917, on western front against the German Army. Significant losses.

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Battle of Jutland

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only major naval battle of WW1, in the North Sea, without decisive outcome.

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U-boats

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German submarines used for reconnaissance and inflicted heavy losses on commercial shipping, including neutral shipping, as far away as off the USA.

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Total war

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productive activity of entire civilian population and economy directed towards military victory. Women taking up traditional men's roles. Government set up state monopolies to guarantee supplies for waging war such as manufacturing munitions, rationing of food supplies and quotas for agricultural producers. Silencing of dissent

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Easter Rebellion

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Irish demand for independence in 1916, hoping to get it while British were occupied by the WW1.

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Easter Rebellion

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This revolt occurred in 1916 as Sinn Fein forces engaged the English Army in Dublin in support of Irish Independence.

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Soviets

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committees or councils of workers and ex soldiers, supported by radical lawyers, journalists and intellectuals in favour of socialist self-rule. One of the centers of authority in Russia after the Tzar Nicholas II abdicated.

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Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

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peace signed between Russia (Lenin. Russia is now lead by congress of soviets) and Germany. Large territorial losses sustained including Ukraine, Georgia, Finland and Polish territories, Baltic States, Belarus and territory to Turkey.

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Zimmermann Note

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telegram from Germany's foreign minister to Mexico, saying they were willing to support Mexico's recovery of lost territory from the US in return for Mexican support of Germany if US entered the war.

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The Armistice

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signed 11 November, 1918 between German and Allied forces representatives ending WW1.

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Fourteen Points

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speech by Woodrow Wilson in 1918 guideline for future peace and appeal to Europe to support his liberal policies. Open covenants of peace, openly arrived at. Reduction of armaments, freedom of commerce and trade, self determination of peoples, association of nations (became the League of Nations).

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Fourteen Points

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These were a series of proposals or conditions set forth by President Woodrow Wilson as being imperative to creating a "lasting peace."

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Treaty of Versailles

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the 1919 treaty that dealt with Germany's defeat at end of WW1, including reparation payments, disposal of German military and commercial navies, transfer of Alsace Lorraine to France, and other losses of territory, stripping Germany of key resources.

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Weimar Republic

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liberal and democratic government of Germany after WW1, which had a progressive constitution including franchise for women and other civil liberties.

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Kellogg-Briand Pact

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This agreement was signed by over 60 nations renouncing war as a method of settling international disputes.

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Kellogg-Briand Pact

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Signed by 23 nations in 1928, pact to renounce war as a route to solve disputes.

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Great Depression

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starting with collapse of the US stock market in 1929, period of worldwide economic stagnation and depression. Heavy borrowing by European nations from USA during WW1 contributed to instability in European economies. Sharp declines in income and production as buying and selling slowed down. Widespread unemployment, countries raised tariffs to protect their industries. America stopped investing in Europe. Lead to loss of confidence that economies were self adjusting -

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Politburo

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This group consisted of some seven individuals, which acted as the inner circle of the Soviet Central Committee.

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Politburo

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Seven man executive of the Central Committee of the Communist Party in the Soviet Union that determined policy and held reigns of power; included Trotsky, Stalin, Bukharin.

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Joseph Stalin

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Lenin's successor, was member of Politburo, general secretary of the Communist Party. Took charge around late 1928 as dictator. Eliminated political rivals. Instituted Five-year plans that committed Russia to rapid industrialization.

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New Economic Policy

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Lenin's actions to reestablish productivity to the USSR's economy. Mix of requisitioning Peasant produce and allowing some capitalist practices.. Allowed for individual forms and private accumulation

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Collectivization

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confiscation of land and establishing collective farms run by the state. Ripped apart village life and related damage to peasant society. Peasants reacted by destroying their crops and livestock.

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Comintern

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Communist International. Encouraged national communist parties in preparation for coming world revolution. Determined policy for all member parties. Stalin purged it so the Comintern severed ties with foreign social democratic parties.

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Great Purge

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series of purges between 1934 to 1938 - anyone Stalin believed to be his opponents were labeled class enemies, including Bolshevik leaders. Show trials, accused were intimidated and tortured into false confessions, and condemned to death or imprisonment. About 300k ppl put to death, and 7 million into labor camps. Achieved unquestioned control of Communist party and country for Stalin.

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Fascism

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Name given to the totalitarian political movement glorifying the state through intense nationalism and work for the state as found in Italy.

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Fascism

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Emerged first in Italy. A totalitarian political system that glorifies the state and totally subordinates the individual to the state's needs. Italy, Germany and Spain became fascist states Opposed to egalitarianism. Ultra-rationalist. Emphasizes anti-liberal values and pursued a politics of violence.

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Nazism

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German variant of fascism: national socialism.

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Benito Mussolini

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fascist leader of Italy after WW1 Attacked the large socialist and popular Catholic parties. Ardent nationalist. Believed communists and big businesses drained Italy's resources. Succeeded on the local level in overthrowing city governments in 1922, undertook march on Rome, and occupied the capital. Took over the country by terror. Used violence and intimidation to secure votes. Made Italy a one-party dictatorship. Persued imperialist goals in Africa (Ethiopia) and Europe (Albania).

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Adolph Hitler

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Exploited the Weimar Republic's weakness to appeal to German nationalism. Wrote Mein Kampf. Became Chancellor by democratic means. Voters made the Nazi party the largest in Germany. Arranged law to outlaw free press and public meetings. Approved use of violence against political enemies. Made Germany a police state via a legal dictatorship. Carried out the legal revolution that incapacitated representative institutions and ended civil liberties. Abolished other political parties to establish single-party rule. Dissolved trade unions. Called the state the Third Reich. Eliminated enemies using the storm troopers who helped achieve electoral victories by beating up political opponents on the streets etc.

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Third Reich

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German fascist Nazi state under Hitler that developed in the 1930s.

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Lebensraum

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living space, a goal of the Nazi state. The right and duty of German master race to be the world's greatest empire. Hitler argued that superior nations had the right to expand their territories into inferior states, that the Aryan master race would dominate inferior peoples, that Germany must annex territories within Europe.

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Kristallnacht

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9 November 1938, Jewish synagogues were set afire and books and valuables owned by Jews were confiscated. Jews were beaten and 20k to 30k were imprisoned in concentration camps. Under orders from Goebbles. Gov't declared it an outpouring of the people's will. Atmosphere of state-sanctioned hate.

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Popular Front

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Coalition of Left and Center in France, intent on economic reforms, promising wage increases paid vacations etc, reduced the work week to 40 hours, which dropped productivity and interfered with Frances recover in depression decade.

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British Union of Fascists

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formed in 1932, opposed to free trade liberalism and communism. Favoured national solutions by relying on imperial development. Squads beat up their political opponents, and attacked Jews. Struck a chord with poorest working-class people. Was outlawed in 1936.

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Spanish Civil War

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began July 1936 when Spanish army revolted against the republic. Lead by General Francisco Franco, allied with Falange, the Fascist party in Spain. Franco led the Nationalists. Mussolini sent troops to fight with Franco and Hitler helped. Soviet Union helped on the side of the Republic. British stayed neutral and France wasn't able to help. People from USA, England, Italy etc also joined to protect the republic. Madrid fell to nationalists in 1939.

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Gen. Francisco Franco

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lead the army in revolt and lead the nationalists against the Spanish republic in the civil war.

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Axis Powers

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Germany, Italy and Japan

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Allied Powers

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British Empire, Soviet Union, United States. The "Grand Alliance"

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Appeasement

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willingness to concede to demands in order to preserve peace. Started with Hitler's annexation of Australia in March 1938, and then claiming German-speaking Sudetenland from in Czechoslovakia. Poland. Lithuania pressured into surrendering Memel etc

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Appeasement

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This pre WWII policy looked to pacify Hitler by allowing German expansion into neighboring territories in an effort to avoid open war in Europe.

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Non-Aggression Pact of 1939

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agreement between Germany and Russia (Hitler and Stalin). Stalin believed it would delay Germany fighting Russia, which Hitler fought the Western Powers and leave Russia to fight at a better time. Germany promised not to interfere if the Soviet Union annexed eastern Poland, Bessarabia, Latvia and Estonia.

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Blitzkrieg

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"lightening war." new kind of war that was speedy, in which airpower and rapid tank movement combined for swift victory.

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Maginot Line

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fortress wall of protection the French built between WW 1 & 2, stretching hundreds of miles

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Vichy France

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location of remaining French government in Un-occupied France after fall of France June 1940. Headed by General Pétain, collaborationist government.

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Battle of Britain

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German air force launched a series of air attacks against England. Attacked first aircraft, airfields and munitions centres, then to major population centres such as London and industrial cities like Coventry. Called Britains finest our by Churchill, because civilians endured nightly air raids. After 2 months, Germany hadn't established air superiority and so stopped

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Tito

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Alias of Josip Broz, a Croatioan Communist and Yugoslav nationalist, a resistance fighter against German-occupied Yugoslavia in the Second World War. A partisan fighter who tied up at least ten German divisions. Later became Yugoslavia's leader in postwar era.

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Final Solution

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total extermination of European Jews, and eventually any enemies of the Reich - via policy of concentrating and confining them in urban ghettos, seizing their property and a step-by-step plan of extermination. Began in Poland. Executions done by SS - elite military arm of the Nazi party

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Holocaust

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mass slaughter of European Jews, mostly in five killing centres in (now) Poland. 11 million people, including 6 million Jews. Included Children, aged, homosexuals, Slavic slaves and prisoners of war, gypsies. Kept in work camps

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Operation Barbarossa

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Start of Germany's invasion of the Soviet Union in June 1941, which precipitated the extension of the "final solution" to include Slavic people, particularly Russian Jews. Russian troops had no first hand battle experience and Stalin had culled their leaders, so unseasoned leaders. Within four months was at Moscow.

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Battle of Stalingrad

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turning point in the war. In 1943, After German troops had been devastated trying to fight Russia's Red Army in the winter, on land where both German and Russian troops had exercised a "scorched-earth" policy, leaving no resources to support the German Army. Russia turned the German army back, but used everyone, civilians, men, women and children fought. Russia lost a lot but beat the Germans.

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Battle of Stalingrad

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This battle was the turning point of WWII in Europe, as German forces in Russia were forced to retreat for the first time.

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Pearl Harbor

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7 December 1941, Japan struck American Pacific Fleet stationed at Pearl Harbour. Crippled American naval power. Lead to the United States' immediate declaration of war against Japan.

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D-day

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6 June 1944 - Allied Troops under American command land at Normandy. Largest amphibious landing in history. Code name Operation overlord. 2.2 million forces

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Battle of the Bulge

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Germany's last ditch counterattack December 1944 in Luxembourg and Belgium. They lost because Allies recaptured France and crossed into Germany. Russian Troops stormed German capital Berlin.

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Island hopping campaign

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series of amphibious landings by Allied forces in the pacific during WW2 in which the allied forces - combined land, sea and air - fought back, recaptured islands from Japanese forces or blocked their connection with home bases.

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Battles of Midway

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June 1942, Naval battle between America and Japan. Pacific equivalent of the Battle of Stalingrad. America won.

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Hiroshima and Nagasaki

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America dropped atomic bombs. Japanese government surrendered September 1945 on battleship Missouri in Tokyo Bay.

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The Big Three

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Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin; leaders who met between 1943 and 1945 to coordinate attacks on Germany and Japan, and later to discuss plans for postwar Europe and settlement of Germany. After the war, their armies occupied Germany, each with a separate zone, although governed as a single economic unit.

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Cold War

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Ideological opposition between communism and capitalist democracies, dominated by the two superpowers. "Cold" because of the lack of military violence. It was based on economic and foreign policy goals

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Iron Curtain

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separation of western and eastern Europe, fro Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, including dividing west and east Germany.

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Berlin Blockade

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Germany's capital, Berlin, was located in Eastern Germany. Russia Blockaded western-controlled Berlin and stopped supplies. They saw western Berlin, run on united western policies, as a threat. Allies airlifted food and supplies for almost a year, defending it as an outpost. The Blockade hardened the commitment on both sides of the two Germanys.

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Containment

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USA's policy of containing USSR's interest in spreading of communism. Lead to creation of NATO, to provide mutual assistance.

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Containment

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U.S. foreign policy developed by the State Department calling for a firm and persistent resistance against the spread of communism.

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NATO

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military alliance, North Atlantic Treaty Organization, to provide mutual assistance should any member be attacked. Formed 1949. France withdrew in 1966 because they refused to put French troops under US control.

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NATO

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This organization was formed after WWII to act as a collective security umbrella for Western Europe against perceived Soviet block aggression.

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Warsaw Pact

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defensive alliance of soviet-allied states which the USSR intended would serve as a strategic buffer zone against NATO forces.

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Third World Nations

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countries that had a role in cold war strategies of Russia after 1953, Khrushchev offered "friendship treaties" (military advice, trade credits and support) in Asia, Africa and Latin America to be freed from colonial rule. Military rule and fragmentation often resulted.

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Mohandas Gandi

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leader of India (later called Mahatma - great one) who agitated for independence from British Empire using non violent methods, which was granted 1946. Split into Pakistan (Muslims), India (Hindus) Sri Lanka and Myanmar.

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Pan-African Federation

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Organized by Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana and Jomo Kenyata of Kenya, which promoted African nationalism. They denounced situation of African dependence as neocolonialism. In a period of mass political demands for liberation/decolonization of Africa.

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Marshall Plan

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The European Recovery Act 1947-ish. a US Act that granted more than 23 billion dollars to European States to aid economic reconstruction and recovery to stabilize European economies and resisted outside (ie communist) pressures. Demanded that recipients 1. cooperated with others in aligning national economic policies, and 2. worked to break down trade barriers. USSR and Eastern Europe was also eligible (economic colonialism)

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Marshall Plan

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This economic plan was developed by the U.S. to provide monetary assistance to European countries to help rebuild their economies and infrastructures.

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Nikita Khrushchev

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USSR leader from late 1950s when Stalin died, who promoted turning to third world promote expansion of communism. De-stalinized USSR. Thawed censorship and repression. Lead to some USSR's member states seizing more control but was crushed.

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European Economic Community

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Common market of European Countries formed in 1957 with six member states. Removed economic barriers between member states and made Western Europe into a single free trade area. Excluded East. Establish free movement of labor and capital, elimination of restrictions on trade, common investment practices and coordinated social welfare programs, protect agricultural interest. Britain joined 1973.

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Berlin Wall

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I03 miles of wall cordoning off East Berlin, built in 1961, heavily policed, to stop bleeding of population over to west.

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Prague Spring Uprising

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Czech Passive resistance protest that occurred when Moscow sent thousands of tanks and troops to Prague and other Czech cities to reestablish control after Alexander Dubcek, party secretary, supported liberal & democratic reforms in the political process that would restore rule to the people. Dubcek didn't move to withdraw from Warsaw Pact or defy Soviet leadership.

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Welfare State

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established after WWII throughout Europe, protected citizens through establishing decent standard of living for everyone., such as unemployment insurance and health care benefits.. a related set of social programs and policies where the state intervened in the cycles of lives to provide economic support for challenges of birth, sickness, old age and unemployment

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Generation Gap

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Politics of the young based on the growing gap between the world of decision-making adults and idealistic universe of the young, which emerged among the first generation to come of age after WWII. It emerged as a result of the combination of security of affluence and insecurity of Cold War politics. Characterized by new styles of dress and grooming, and rejection of middle-class culture.

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Anti-War Movement

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student protest that started as the Free Speech movement in California and spread around the world, with common denominator of opposition to war in Vietnam and condemning US presence there. as violation of Viet rights and US imperialism. Lead to growing activism on campuses aimed as social reform etc. Primarily a middle-class movement.

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Brezhnev Doctrine

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a policy initiated in the mid 60s whereby the Soviet Union claimed the right to interfere in the internal affairs of its allies in order to prevent counter-revolution. For example; the Soviet Union intervened in Czechoslovakia.

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Détente

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period of cooperation between the US and USSR superpowers, limiting strategic arms.

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Mikhail Gorbachev

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Soviet leader in the mid 80s who introduced policies of increased openness (glasnost) and a program of political and economic restructuring (perestroika).

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Glasnost

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policy of increased openness implemented in the 1980s in the Soviet Union

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Perestroika

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a program of political and economic restructuring implemented in the 1980s in the Soviet union.

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Solidarity

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a non communist labor union in Poland lead by an electrician Lech Walesa, that staged a series of coordinated strikes in factories that shut down the entire economy and forced the Government to agrees to a series of reforms, which included increased civil liberties. Large number of Polish became members. Eventually became a political party and defeated the Communist party.

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Lech Walesa

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union leader in Poland of the Solidarity union which ousted the communist party.

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Boris Yeltsin

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foiled the attempted convinced coup by communist hardliners by convincing the soviet army to not back them. Became president of the soviet union in 1987. implemented hard drive to westernization

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German Unification

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1990 after fall of the Berlin wall, joining of currencies.

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Soviet Disunion

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velvet revolutions and states elect democratic governments. Then eleven former soviet republics form a commonwealth of Independent states, leaving Soviet government without a state to rule. Mikhail Gorbachev nothing to rule and Soviet Union is dissolved 1991

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Chechnya

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Chechens declared themselves independent from Russia in 1991, but Russia invaded in December 1994 killing mostly civilians. In 1999 conflict rose again and has escalated into terrorism and counterterrorism.

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Balkans War

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Yugoslavia was a federation of six people's republics. In 1991 Serbia overran multiethnic Bosnia and Herzegovina to get territory. There is a history of ethnic differences in the region, but the main conflict between Serbians and Croations was conflicting claims on and both claim some areas of land in Bosnia and Herzegovena. Later, the conflict moved when Bosnian population (Moslem) was evicted by Serbian Christians, and the Serbs then carried out a policy of ethnic cleansing on the Bosnian Moslems. Bosnian Moslems got international support and committed retaliatory war crimes.

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Kosovo

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one of the six former Yugoslav republics, a state of Serbia. Atrocities in turn by Serbian rulers against Albanians, and then by Albanians back at Serbians.

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Ethnic Cleansing

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barbarity and genocide in Bosnia in former Yugoslavia, and in Chechnya

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European Union

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created1992 when the 12 EC members agreed on a common currency, central banking system and common defense system and common social policies regulating immigration and labour practices. New currency began in 2002. Now increased to 27 members with eastern European nations joining.

Modern European History – Flashcards

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