APWH POD 17: Sick Old Man of Europe – Flashcards

(1853-1856) This was a great conflict fought in Romania, on the Black Sea, and on the Crimean Peninsula. Concerning alliances, Great Britain, France, Piedmont-Sardinia and the Ottoman Empire were against Russia. Austria-Hungary mediated the outcome through its geographic location and political stance. Immediately during the war, Russian Czar Nicholas I died, defeat was imminent and Alexander II was forced to sue for peace after the fall of Sevastopol. The Czar and his government, already beset by demands for the reform of serfdom, education and the military were further discredited. Britain and France launched successful propaganda campaigns to support the war effort and newspapers were able to assist in mobilizing the home front (nationalism + yellow journalism). Looking long-term, the Crimean War marked the transition from traditional to modern warfare ~Traditional War - front lines of infantry with a cavalry to smash through the enemy lines - barrel loaded rifles were awkward to load allowing the cavalry time to attack ~Modern War - cavalry units would be destroyed by the new rapid fire rifles that loaded at the breech rather than down the barrel

~Britain and France trapped the Russian fleet in the Black Sea ~Russian commanders decided to sink the fleet to block the approaches to Sevastopol, the main Russian base in the Crimea ~British and French troops were still able to land in Sevastopol and laid siege ~Corruption and a lack of railways in Russia prevented the city from being resupplied ~The Russian army too weak and suffered from disease

Should the Ottoman Empire continue to exist? If NOT, who should take over its territory? The Ottoman Empire was causing major disruptions to Western Europe and Russia, especially concerning Russia's annexation of Serbia.

This was the right for the Europeans to be subject to their own laws and exempt from Ottoman jurisdiction. After the Crimean War, the Ottoman Empire was in severe debt to Britain and France, as those countries allowed the Ottomans to pursue their conflict. As a result of the debt, the Europeans were able to be involved in the Ottoman Empire, starting the downfall of it and its collapse. Extraterritoriality showed the European imperialism and the decline in Ottoman power from a previous powerhouse.

This was the only cultural region of the Ottoman Empire that was successfully able to become independent as its own nation; it was not in the Ottoman Empire anymore. Greece most likely gained their independence because of their political domination. Going back to ancient times, Greece was the birthplace of representative democracy and Western culture. It was for the best interest of the Ottomans to give up Greece to prevent any further power struggles. Greek independence in 1829 had dramatic international significance. A combination of Greek nationalist organizations and interlopers from Albania formed the independence movement. Europe's interest in the classical age of Greece and Rome led many Europeans to consider the Greek's struggle for independence a campaign to recapture their classical glory from Muslim oppression. When the combined squadrons of the British, French, and Russian fleets, under orders to observe but not intervene in the war, made an unauthorized attack that sank the Ottoman fleet at the Battle of Navarino, Greek victory was assured. The improved quality of the new Egyptian army had proven itself on the battlefields during the Greek War of Independence. The Ottoman defeat in Greece was a signal to both Sultan Mahmud II, as well as the larger world community of significant weakness.

These were a group of elite warriors, first comprised of Christian children and POWs from Balkan villages. They went through an intense training program, and they were thoroughly trained in using modern guns. The Janissaries proved to be a very beneficial asset to the Ottoman Empire, allowing them to be protected and stable. Eventually, their position in society was respected, and they began to gain societal power. This would culminate in them becoming a completely separate social class, having prime privileges and influential political status, so the Janissaries were essential becoming a power vacuum to the Ottoman sultan. Despite being an inefficient force, the Janissaries used their remaining political power in Istanbul to prevent Sultan Selim III to abandon efforts to train a modern European-style army. The Janissaries did not want change, they just wanted to stay how they were because everything was fine. During the Tanzimat era, they suspected the sultan of trying to limit their political status and influence (revolted in 1805 forcing the sultan to rely on the Bosnian ruler to suppress the rebellion). In 1826, a public announcement surfaced of the creation of a new artillery unit that had secretly been training. The Janissaries revolted upon hearing this announcement, but the Sultan responded by ordering the artillery unit to shell the Janissary barracks. Now, the Janissary Corps was officially dissolved.

This is not only the belief that your country or group is superior over all the surrounding countries in the world, but you are superior in all aspects: moral, ethical, religious, political, economical and defensively. In the Ottoman Empire, each coalition of ethnic groups had their own nationalistic beliefs. Each group wanted to become independent from the Ottoman Empire, as each though they were superior from the other groups. Greece was the only region that was effectively able to secede from the Ottoman Empire. Specifically, nationalism would make the Ottoman Empire weaker because of the conflicting European nations against the Ottoman Empire. For the Young Turks, a dangerous mixture of modern armies and nationalism created a "powder keg" ready to explode because they felt they were superior over the Ottoman state.

This is the term attributed to the Ottoman Empire because by the end of the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire had fallen dramatically behind the rest of Europe economically, technologically and militarily. They lost Provinces: Macedonia in 1902-1903, Bosnia in 1908, Crete in 1909, and Albania in 1910. Italy took Libya (the last Ottoman land in Africa) in 1912. Serbia, Bulgaria, Romania and Greece chased the Turks out of Europe except for a small pocket around Istanbul. Because the Ottoman Empire was delayed in their culture, European nations were far advanced to them and were far more stable. This made the Ottoman Empire weaker and contributed to their downfall. Eventually, Mustafa Kemal Ataturk transformed the Ottoman Empire into a modern, progressive state.

These were restructuring reforms by the 19th century Ottoman rulers intended to move civil law away from the control of the religious elites and make the military and the bureaucracy more efficient. Overall, westernized culture moved into the Ottoman Empire, displacing traditional cultural Islamic beliefs and customs. There was pushback from the Janissaries, who suspected the sultan of trying to limit their political status and influence (revolted in 1805 forcing the sultan to rely on the Bosnian ruler to suppress the rebellion) and the Ulama. These were Muslim religious scholars who distrusted the Sultan Selim's proposed secularization of law and taxation (Selim was forced to suspend these program in 1806 and was eventually deposed and imprisoned before finally being executed). New universities and policies were instituted in the military, where cadets were now sent to France and Germany to have proper military training (plus fez). The practice of recruiting government officials from traditional bureaucratic families and offering on-the-job training was replaced by a civil service system hiring men who were products of the new educational system, which adopted western style dress, as opposed to the traditional fashions that were symbolic of the religious, rural and parochial. Now secularization of the legal code, and the shari'a practice of a head tax on non-Muslims making the non-Muslims eligible for military service as well (unless they bought their way out) ended. All male subjects had equal access to civil courts (Islamic Law courts were reduced). However, women did not greatly prosper at all, if anything, their rights and influence decreased.

~Public trials and equal protection under the law for all whether Christian, Jew or Muslim ~Guaranteed rights of privacy ~Equalized the eligibility of men for conscription into the army ~New tax collection system, ending the system of tax farming ~Commercial, criminal and civil procedures and legal codes were reformed to replace the control of the shari'a (Islamic Law) over these areas - now restricted to family matters

The decline of Ottoman power and prosperity had a strong impact on a group of well-educated young urban men who aspired to wealth and influence. This nationalistic group doubted that the empire's rulers and the Tanzimat officials who worked for them would ever stand up to European domination. Though lacking a sophisticated organization, these Young Ottomans (sometimes called Young Turks, though the term properly applies to a later movement) promoted a mixture of liberal ideas derived from Europe, pride in Ottoman independence, and modernist views of Islam. Prominent Young Ottomans helped draft a constitution that was disseminated in 1876 by a new and as yet untried sultan, Abdul Hamid II.

This was a Turkish nationalist party in the 20th century, consisting of Ottoman exiles, students, civil servants, and army officers. They plotted to force a constitution on the sultan and alienated other anti-Ottoman groups by advocating centralized rule and the Turkification of ethnic minorities. In 1909, a Parliament dominated by the Young Turks overthrew Sultan Abdul Hamid II. They instituted reforms to the police, governmental bureaucracy and the educational system, while cracking down on Greek and Armenian minorities (eventually over 1 million Armenians would perish in an attempted genocide). This group hired a German general to modernize the military as a reaction to their defeat in the Balkan Wars. A dangerous mixture of modern armies and nationalism created a "powder keg" ready to explode.

The process of introducing political, economical, social, and religious customs from nations that have had direct European influence; ie. all Western Europe countries. Nations impacted by Westernization are influenced by beliefs coming from Western Europe, which infiltrate their society and allow it to grow. Under the Tanzimat period, Abdul Mejid instituted European beliefs in the military and society. Western-style fashion came into society, where the previous Turkish and Islamic style started to diminish. Mustafa Kemal Ataturk additionally implemented western customs, most notably by westernizing the Ottoman family, changing the roles of women, which had varying degrees of success. By doing this, he helped transform the Ottoman Empire from the "Sick Old Man of Europe" into the modern western progressive nation state of Turkey.

This is the process a nation undergoes to become more advanced and urbanized, politically, economically, and socially. Overall, the society experiences internal growth and departs away from more simplistic and primitive principles; the society is becoming more complex. In the Ottoman Empire, the state severely struggled with modernization, mostly concerning their military, government, and legal systems. There was strong opposition to changing because of a stagnant position towards change. For them, everything was good, and they were afraid of the potential effects from change. Eventually, Mustafa Kemal Ataturk imposed dramatic change on the nation in an effort to bring Turkey closer to Europe as quickly as possible. Ultimately, this would transform the Ottoman state from the "sick old man of Europe" to a modern progressive state.

This is the process of transitioning a society, in some way to deviate from the religious aspect of it and direct towards a more administrative view. Civility is more emphasized than religion. During this time, the law and order codes and taxation were major component of Ottoman society that was secularized. Sultan Selim III wanted to step away from the influence of Islam and the Sharia in law and taxation. Ultimately, this caused conflict from the ulama who distrusted the Sultan Selim's proposed secularization of law and taxation (Selim was forced to suspend these program in 1806 and was eventually deposed and imprisoned before finally being executed). Abdul Mejid would reinstitute these reforms by created public trials and equal protection under the law for all whether Christian, Jew or Muslim and guaranteeing rights of privacy. All male subjects had equal access to civil courts (Islamic Law courts were reduced), so religion was now not so much a factor in testimonies, creating a more fair system to limit discrimination. Mejid equalized the eligibility of men for conscription into the army and created a new tax collection system, ending the system of tax farming. Overall, this ended the shari'a practice of a head tax on non-Muslims making the non-Muslims eligible for military service as well (unless they bought their way out). Commercial, criminal and civil procedures and legal codes were reformed to replace the control of the shari'a over these areas. Shari'a was restricted to matters of family law such as marriage and inheritance. Again, under Mustafa, he abolished the sultanate and established a secular republic, while breaking with Islamic tradition and shari'a by establishing European style laws. He replaced Arabic alphabets with the Latin alphabet and suppressed Muslim courts, schools and religious orders.

He was a Turkish army officer, revolutionary and founder of the Republic of Turkey, which came out of the remnants of the Ottoman Empire. In 1919, he formed a nationalistic government in central Anatolia with the support of the army officers. In 1922, he reconquered Anatolia and the areas around Constantinople with a short war against the invading Greeks. Eventually, he forced hundreds of thousands of Greeks from their ancestral homes in Anatolia (as retaliation the Greeks expelled all Muslims from Greece). Ultimately, he was able to transform the Ottoman Empire from "The Sick Old Man of Europe" into the modern western progressive nation state of Turkey, mostly through modernization.

~Ataturk imposed dramatic change on the nation in an effort to bring Turkey closer to Europe as quickly as possible ~Abolished the sultanate and established a secular republic ~Broke with Islamic tradition and shar'ia establishing European style laws ~Replaced Arabic alphabets with the Latin alphabet ~Suppressed Muslim courts, schools and religious orders

~Attempted to westernize the traditional Turkish family ~Women received civil equality and gained the right to vote and could be elected to the national assembly ~Forbade polygamy, instituted civil marriage and divorce and discouraged women from wearing the burqa and veil ~Replaced the traditional fez with the European brimmed hat ~Ordered all to take a family name - he took the name Ataturk ("father of the Turks") ~Reforms were embraced in the urban areas but in rural areas Islamic traditions remained strong and resisted for as long as possible

Changes in military practice had unforeseen cultural and social effects. Accepting the European notion that modern weapons and drill required modern military dress, beards were deemed unhygienic and, in artillery units, a fire hazard. Military headgear also became controversial. European military caps, which had leather bills on the front to protect against the glare of the sun, were not acceptable because they interfered with Muslim soldiers' touching their foreheads to the ground in prayer. The compromise was the brimless cap now called the fez, which was adopted by the military and then by Ottoman civil officials in the early years of Mahmud II's reign. This would be disregarded by Mustafa Kemal Ataturk in his methods of secularization and modernization.

Islamic law that all rulers were expected to enforce and abide by, while guaranteeing all Muslims had rights under this. However, because of the flexibility and ambiguity of the Sharia, decisions were ultimately made up to the individual's interpretation. During the Tanzimat Reform period, especially under Abdul Mejid, commercial, criminal and civil procedures and legal codes were reformed to replace the control of the shari'a over these areas. Now, we started to see the growth of secularism in the Ottoman Empire, replacing the former Islamic control. Shari'a was now restricted to matters of family law such as marriage and inheritance. With this, the shari'a practice of a head tax on non-Muslims was ended, making the non-Muslims eligible for military service as well (unless they bought their way out). Under Mustafa Kemal Ataturk, he would also break with Islamic tradition and shar'ia, establishing European style laws.

This was a separate court of law pertaining to "personal law" under which a confessional community (a group abiding by the laws of Muslim Sharia, Christian Canon law, or Jewish Halakha) was allowed to rule itself under its own laws. At this time, the Ottoman Empire was very diverse, consisting of a wide range of cultures and regions. To stabilize its cosmopolitan nature, this separation of laws allowed for peace and representation, which would lead to the downfall of the Ottoman Empire and the nationalistic push for independent cultural entities.