HD Final Review – Flashcards

Growth is slow and gradual. Grow from the center of the body and out. Changes are less spectacular than in earlier years.

Lower portion of the body is growing the fastest. (Legs, feet)

Because children from different countries have different growth rates because of heredity and environmental factors. Climate also affects growth. Long, lean physiques are typical in hot climates, and short, stocky ones in cold arctic areas.

(Secular trends in physical growth) Because they are well-nourished and infectious diseases are largely controlled. Improved health and nutrition are highly responsible.

Their bones and body lengthen and broadens but their ligaments are not firmly attached to their bones yet. This and increasing muscle strength, give children their unusual flexibility.

Myopia (nearsightedness)- close reading, writing, and using the computer

Retarded physical growth, low IQ, Poor motor coordination, Inattention. Production of neurotransmitters in brain can be altered. Could lead to permanent physical and mental damage.

17%

Growth stunted children are more likely to be overweight because a malnourished body protects itself by establishing a low basal metabolism rate, which endures after nutrition improves. Malnutrition might cause the brain to tell you to eat more when you have access to food especially high fat foods, even those your metabolism is still slow

Heredity, SES, Early growth pattern due to bad parent feeding practices, Responsiveness to food cues, TV, Physical activity, Malnutrition in early childhood,

Heredity is a major contributing factor-parents and identical twins. It is caused by failure of muscular response that inhibit urination or by a hormonal imbalance that permits too much urine to accumulate during the night.

Asthma

Motor vehicle accidents and bicycle accidents.

Flexibility, Balance, Agility, Force

Reaction time - a way of fine tuning motor development (tested in baseball). Rapid responding, such as dribbling and batting. 11 year olds react twice as quickly as 5 year olds. This does level off and then gets worse, evidence is seen with aging adults

Legibility and writing (Cursive by 3rd grade)

School age boys advantage in muscle mass and social environment Parents hold higher expectations for boys athletic performance Girls are ahead in fine motor development and in skipping, jumping, hopping (things that require more balance and agility). But in most motor skills, boys are ahead in more organized games such as kickball, baseball, etc. Although boys have some muscle growth and change it does not account for the vast difference between genders, this may be a socialization difference

They discover why rules are necessary and which ones work well. Help children form more mature concepts of fairness and justice. Gains in perspective taking.

In the past it was important for the development of fighting skills. It may help children establish dominance hierarchy (a stable ordering of group members that predicts who will win when conflict arises.

Piaget's Concrete Operational stage: ages 7-11, thoughts are now logical, flexible, and organized than was in early childhood. Conservation: passes which shows that they understand mental actions that obey logical rules. Decentration: focusing on several aspect of the problem and relating them together. Reversibility: thinking through a series of steps and mentally going back to the beginning Classification: they can have three relations at once Seriation: quantitative dimension such as length and height. Ex. Counting and putting sticks in order. Spatial: they pass and understand mental rotations and left and right. They also have cognitive maps which are large skill spaces such as school or neighborhood.

•They only think in concrete organized fashion when dealing with concrete information but not abstract ideas(i.e. susan is taller than sally....) They don't come up with logic principles and apply them in situations, instead they work out logic for each problem separately.

Taking part in relevant everyday activities help master conservation and other problems Experience of going to school seem to promote mastery of Piagetian tasks and not every culture have this opportunity. Forms of logic relies heavily on training, context and cultural conditions (i.e. girls in india, boys in street vendors in brazil compared to US school children)

Information processing speed and capacity: time needed to process information declines rapidly between 6 and 12 years possibly due to myelination and synaptic pruning in the brain. Inhibition: the ability to control internal and external distracting stimuli improves from infancy on because of development in part of the brain called the frontal lobe.

Children are able to deliberately attend to just those aspects of a situation that are relevant to their task goals. They can block out irrelevant information. They pay attention to instructions- situational requirement. i.e. Sorting cards and spelling tests

Rehearsal: repeating information to oneself (first appears in early school years) Organization: grouping related items- which improves recall dramatically (ex. All state capitals in the same part of the country) Elaboration: creating meaning or relationship between two pieces of information that are not in the same category.(Ex. If you want to learn the words fish and pipe you might use the sentence the fish is in the pipe.) (The child uses all three of these at once.) Elaboration and organization helps children to keep information into meaningful chunks.

Research shows that children learn best with the mixture of both approaches. Learning the relationships between letters and sounds enables children to decode words they had never seen before.

A blend of these two methods of teaching in the most beneficial. Students should be encouraged to apply certain strategies and try to figure out why that strategy is right. (Exploration rather than drilling and repetition is better)

At age 6

Stanford-Binet and the Wechsler Intelligence tests

Analytic: information processing skills, engage in self-regulation Creative: capacity to solve novel problems Practical: application of intellectual skills, adapt to, shape and select a suitable

There are eight(8) of them but the Interpersonal and intrapersonal have been combined to for the Emotional Intelligence. Linguistic: sounds, rhythms, meaning of words and the functions of language Logico-Mathematical: Understand math and long chains of logical reasoning Musical: music, composer, instrumentalist Spatial: sculptor, perceive the visual/spatial world accurately Bodily-Kinesthetic: ability to use body skillfully, dancer, athlete Naturalist: classify and recognize varieties of animals, plants and minerals, Biologist Interpersonal: Know others understand and detect moods, temperament etc. therapist Intrapersonal: Know yourself

Emotional intelligence refers to a set of emotional abilities that enable individuals to process and adapt to emotional information. To measure it, researchers have devised items tapping emotional skills that enable people to manage their own emotions and interact competently with others. i.e. emotional perception, emotional understanding, emotional facilitation, and emotional regulation. It is tested by looking at how individual perceive emotions(rate strength of emotion in photographs), understand emotion(reason about emotions in social situations), and regulate emotions(effectiveness of controlling negative emotions).

Heredity: Twin comparisons- The IQ scores of identical twins (who share all their genes) are more similar than those of fraternal twins. Environment: Adoption studies- When young children are adopted into caring, stimulating homes, their IQs rise substantially compared with the IQs of nonadopted children who remain economically deprived families

Ethnic minorities families often foster unique language skills that do not that match expectations in the classroom and test situations. (Communication styles) Unlike the hierarchical style of communication (like that of the classroom) by white parent to their children, ethnic minority parent use collaborative style of communication where they work together and focus of the same part of the problem. Time spent in school- the longer the higher the intelligence score Test content- Vocabulary

A Stereotype threat is the fear of being judged on the basis of a negative stereotype. It can trigger anxiety that interferes with performance, undermining test taking in children and adults.

School-age children has a more reflective and analytical approach to language which permits them to appreciate the multiple meanings of words. It also leads to a change in children's humor.

Research shows that both is preferred (one that promotes children's native-language and literacy skills while they learn English) but public opinion and educational practice favor English only. Bilingual children outperform others on tests of selective attention, analytical reasoning, concept information, and cognitive flexibility.

Better in small classes(13-17 students) because teachers spend less time disciplining and more time teaching and giving individual attention.

Instruction in the United States is less challenging and focused. In these countries, they focus on high-level reasoning and critical thinking. A variety of social forces combine to help foster children learning. These include; investing more in education, emphasize effort, high-quality education for all, and in Japan Hong Kong, and Taiwan, the school year is 50 days longer than that of the US which shows that they are more devoted to instruction.

Divergent thinking is the generation of multiple and unusual possibilities when faced with a problem or task. Ex. Name as many uses for a chair as possible. Convergent thinking involves arriving at a single correct answer which is emphasized on Intelligence tests.

Industry versus Inferiority: -Resolved positively when experiences lead children to develop a sense of competence at useful skills and tasks (Industry) - Resolved negatively in the pessimism of children who have little confidence in their ability to do things well (Inferiority) - Usually when family life has not prepared children for school life or when experiences with teachers and peers destroy children's feelings of competence and mastery with negative responses.

In middle childhood, children become able to describe themselves in terms of psychological traits, to compare their own characteristics with those of their peers, and to speculate about the causes of their strengths and weaknesses. - Children refine their me-self by organizing their observation of behavior and internal states into general dispositions - Major change takes place between ages 8 and 11 - Children make social comparisons and judge their own appearance, abilities, and behavior in relation to those of others - Older children can compare multiple individuals, including themselves(social comparisons); not seen in 4-6 year olds

1. Academic competence - Language arts - Math - Other school subjects 2. Social competence - Relationship with peers - Relationship with parents 3. Physical/athletic competence - Outdoor games - Various sports 4. Physical appearance - Most closely related to self esteem

- Children lose the sunny optimism of early childhood -Self-esteem declines during the first few years of elementary school - Children eventually balance social comparison with personal achievement goals to protect their self-worth - From fourth grade on, self-esteem rises for the majority of young people who feel especially good about their peer relationships and athletic capabilities.

Authoritative child-rearing style promotes high self-esteem in children. The warm positive parenting lets children know that they are accepted as competent and worthwhile. And firm but appropriate expectations, backed up with explanations, help them evaluate their own behavior against reasonable standards.

(Dweck's Motivational Theory) Attributions: common everyday explanations for the causes of behavior - Mastery-oriented attributions: attributions that credit success to ability which can be improved by trying hard, and failure to insufficient effort (high in academic self-esteem and motivation) - Learned helplessness: attribute failures not successes to ability. success is due to external facts, such as luck, while failure is due to ability, which cannot be improved by trying hard

Entity theory—intelligence is fixed Performance goal—gain positive judgments If HIGH - Mastery oriented If LOW- Helpless Incremental theory—intelligence is malleable Learning goal—increase competence If High or Low -- Mastery Oriented • Girls are more vulnerable to helpless behavior o Bright girls are most vulnerable to learned helpless pattern • Attribution of success/failure o Luck o Ability o Effort • Correlational, not causal

Attribution retraining encourages learned-helpless children to believe they can overcome failure by exerting more effort. Children are given tasks difficult enough that they will experience some failure, followed by repeated feedback that helps them revise their attributions: "You can do it if you try harder"

Perspective taking is the capacity to imagine what other people are thinking and feeling. Selman's theory: at first children have only a limited idea of others's thoughts and feelings. Over time, they become more aware that people can interpret the same event quite differently. Soon they can "step into another person's shoes" and reflect on how that person might regard their own thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Finally, older children and adolescents can evaluate two people's perspectives simultaneously, at first from the vantage point of a disinterested spectator and later by referring to societal values. • Changes in PERSPECTIVE TAKING (Stages) o Level 0: Undifferentiated Ages 3-6 Recognize that self and other can have different thoughts and feelings but frequently confuse the two o Level 1: Social informational Ages 4-9 Understand that different perspectives may result because people have access to different information o Level 2: Self-reflective Ages 7-12 Ability to "step into another persons shoes" and view their own thoughts, feelings, and behavior from the other person's perspective Recognize that others can also do the same o Level 3: Third-party Ages 10-15 Ability to step outside a two person situation and imagine how themselves and others are viewed from the view of a third party o Level 4: Societal Ages 14-adult Understand that third-party perspective taking can be influenced by one or more systems of larger societal values

Peer acceptance: likeability—how a child is viewed by age mates as a worthy social partner Four categories of children: o Popular children: many positive votes o Rejected children: actively disliked; many negative votes o Controversial children: many votes, both positively and negatively (both liked and disliked) o Neglected children: seldom mentioned, either positively or negatively

- Sibling relationships are not essential for normal development - North American children growing up in one-child families are higher in self-esteem and achievement motivation, do better in school, and reach higher levels of education May be a result of the close relationship they have with their parents who may put more pressure on them for mastery and accomplishment - Only children have just as many close high quality friends as those with siblings but do tend to be less well accepted in the peer group Possibly because they have not had opportunities to learn effective conflict-resolution strategies from sibling interactions - Chinese only children are advanced in cognitive development and academic achievement; have close interaction with first cousins

- Gay and lesbian parents are as committed to and effective at child rearing as heterosexual parents - Children in gay and lesbian families did not differ from the children of heterosexuals in mental health, peer relations, and gender identity - Children of gay and lesbian parents do not differ from other children in sexual orientation o The large majority are heterosexual o Evidence suggest that more adolescents from homosexual families experiment for a time with partners of both sexes o Nearly half reported harassment due to their parents' sexual orientation

- Adjustment problems associated with economic hardship and living in run-down neighborhoods - Lack of a father's warmth and involvement causes children to achieve less well in school and engage in more antisocial behavior that children in low-SES first-marriage families - Greater risk for conduct problems if the mother pairs up with an antisocial father than if she had raised the child alone

Age: - Cognitive immaturity of preschool and early school-age children makes it difficult for them to grasp the reasons behind their parents' separation - Young children often blame themselves for the divorce -They are more likely to display both anxious, fearful and angry, defiant reactions than older children and adolescents -Some older children display more mature behavior and take on extra family and household tasks - Others retaliate with running away, truancy, early sexual activity, and delinquency as well as poor achievement in school Temperament: Easy children usually cope better with adversity Sex: - Girls internalize reactions through crying, self criticism, and withdrawal or more often with demanding, attention getting behavior - Boys are at slightly greater risk for serious adjustment problems in mother-custody families - Many boys enter the period of turmoil surrounding divorce with reduced capacity to cope with family stress

Children and adolescents of divorced parents continue to score slightly lower than children of continuously married parents in academic achievement, self-esteem, social competence, and emotional and behavioral adjustment

The overriding factor in positive adjustment following divorce is effective parenting—how well the custodial parent handles stress and shields the child from family conflict and the extent to which each parent uses authoritative child rearing.

Remaining in an intact but high-conflict family is much worse than transitioning to a low conflict, single-parent household.

How well children adapt to blended families is related to the quality of family functioning Variables: o Which parent forms a new relationship o The child's age and sex- girls typically react worse o The complexity of blended-family relationships

- When mothers enjoy their work and remain committed to parenting, children show favorable adjustment - Employed mothers who value their parenting role are more likely to use authoritative child rearing and co regulation - Maternal employment leads fathers to take on greater child-rearing responsibilities

Resiliency in middle childhood (the capacity to overcome adversity) - Family - School - Community - Personal

- School-age children are better able than preschoolers to give detailed descriptions of past experiences and make accurate inferences about others' motives and intentions - Older children are generally more resistant than preschoolers to misleading questions - When properly questioned, even 3 year olds can recall personally relevant events accurately, including highly stressful ones - Anatomically correct dolls used to prompt children's recall increase the suggestibility of preschoolers who report physical and sexual contact that never happened

- Young children are eager to take on new tasks, join in on activities, and see what they can do (Initiative) - Play is very important, helps preschoolers try new skills with little risk of criticism and failure - Erikson's theory build's on Freud's view that children avoid punishment and maintain parental affection by identifying with same-sex parent - The negative outcome of early childhood is an too-strict superego that causes children to feel way too guilty because they've been threatened, criticized and punished excessively (Guilt)

- Self-concept: the set of attributes, abilities, attitudes and values that an individual believes defines who he or she is. Mental representation of self - Preschoolers: self-concept largely consists of observable characteristics (name, physical appearance, possessions, etc) - By age 3 ½ they also begin to describe selves using typical emotions and attitudes - And 4 year olds can also infer appropriate motives and feelings when given trait labels

- Chinese parents told long stories about child's misdeeds, conveyed stories with warmth and caring, stressing impact of misbehavior on others and ended with direct teaching of proper behavior. Confucian traditions of strict discipline - Irish-Americans downplayed a lot of misbehavior, didn't really dwell on misdeeds but seemed to promote self-esteem - Most Americans believe self-esteem is crucial for healthy develop, but Chinese adults see it as unimportant or even negative - do little to cultivate individuality - Chinese child's self-concept emphasizes membership in the collective and obligations to others, whereas American child's more autonomous

By age 3, children whose parents patiently encourage while offering information about how to succeed are enthusiastic and highly motivated. In contrast, children with history of parental criticism of worth and performance give up easily and express shame and despondency after failing

- Sympathy - feelings of concern or sorrow for another's plight - Empathy - feeling with another person and responding emotionally in a similar way. It is an important motivator for prosocial or altruistic behavior (actions that benefit another person without any expected reward for self) - Empathy can lead to sympathy - However, empathy can also cause personal distress if the child focuses on his own anxieties.

- Nonsocial activity - 1st step; unoccupied, onlooker behavior and solitary play - Parallel play - 2nd step, limited form of social participation where child plays near other children with similar materials but doesn't try to influence their behavior Highest levels of play include: - Associative play - children engage in separate activities but exchange toys and comment on one another's behavior - Cooperative play - children orient toward a common goal, such as acting out a make- believe theme

A friend is someone "who likes you" and with whom you spend a lot of time playing with. Mutual trust is not part of friendship yet. "we're not friends anymore!"

Social problem solving is generating and applying strategies that prevent or resolve disagreements, resulting in outcomes that are both acceptable to others and beneficial to the self. To engage in social problem solving disagreements, children must bring together diverse social understandings. Children who get along with agemates interpret social cues accurately, formulate goals that enhance relationships, and have a repertoire of effective problem-solving strategies.

Psychoanalytic: emphasizes the emotional side of moral development although guilt is an important motivator of moral action, contrary to Freud's theory, discipline promoting fear of punishment and loss of parental love does not foster conscience development. induction is far more effective. Social learning: focuses on how moral behavior is learned through reinforcement and modeling. Effective adult models of morality are warm and powerful and they practice what they preach. Cognitive development: Views children as active thinkers about social rules. By age 4, children consider intentions in making moral judgments and distinguish truthfulness from lying. Preschoolers also distinguish moral imparities from social conventions and matters of personal choice, but they tend to reason rigidly about morality.

Whites do it out of anger while African American do it to show discipline Cold and rejecting parents who spank -> children leads to bad behavior. African American parents are usually warm during the punishment as opposed to the angry Whites.

Instrumental- way child acts to fulfill a need or desire Reactive- angry response to blocked goal and is meant to hurt another person. Physical aggression harms other through physical injury. Verbal aggression harms others through threats Relational aggression damages another's peer relationships through social exclusion, malicious gossip, or friendship manipulation. Could be indirect or direct.

Boys are more physical while girls result to verbal and relational

Gender typing refers to any association of objects, activities, roles or traits with on sex or the other in ways that conform to cultural stereotypes. Preschoolers associate toys, clothes, tools, household items, games, occupations, colors, and behaviors with one sex or another. What boys/girls are exposed to in regards to toys clothing games etc

More levels of androgens leads to more masculine play. Sex hormones also affect human play styles.

Parents have different expectations in regards to boys and girls (Indirect cues) Teachers- regard girls as quiet more mature than boys. They offer girls more encouragement in adult structured activities, and more disapproval and discipline to boys. Peer- Gender segregated peer groups where you're judged on what you play with and how you play with it Tv- show that males are still dominant while girls are more emotional

Gender Indetity- an image of oneself as masculine or feminine in characteristics Androgyny- scoring high in both masculine and feminine personality traits Gender Constancy- a full understanding of the biologically based performance of their gender including the realization that sex remains the same over time, even if clothing, hairstyle, and play activities change. This is gained during the preschool years.

Gender schema theory is an information processing approach to gender typing that combines social learning and cognitive-developmental features. It explains how environmental pessures and children's cogntitions work together to shape gender-role development. Gender schemas- Masculine and feminine categories that they use to interpret the world.

Authoritative- high responsiveness and high demanding Authoritarian- low responsiveness but high demanding Permissive (indulgent)- high responsiveness but low demanding Uninvolved (indifferent) - low responsiveness and low demanding

3 Dimensions: Acceptance and involvement, control, and autonomy granting. Authoritative- The most successful, involves high acceptance and involvement, adapted control techniques and appropriate autonomy granting, is warm, makes reasonable demands to control and allows child to make decisions when they are ready Authoritarian- Low in acceptance and involvement, high in coercive control and low in autonomy granting-"do it because I said so", cold, uses punishments and force of control, makes decision for child Permissive- Warm and accepting, but uninvolved. Parents are overindulgent or inattentive and thus engage in little control. Instead of gradually granting autonomy they allow children to make many of their own decisions at an age when they are not yet capable of doing so. Uninvolved- emotionally detached, makes few to no demands, indifferent to child's decision making

Authoritative- self control, cooperative, happy in mood, confident, task persistence, less gender-typed Authoritatian- anxious, unhappy, low self esteem, withdrawn, hostile when frustrated Permissive- disobedient, rebellious, immature, less persistent in school tasks esp. boys, depend on adults Uninvolved- antisocial, poor school reports and emotional regulations, low tolerance for frustration

Chinese- more controlling Hispanic/Caribbean/African- parents want respect and obedience (parental authority) but they also show warmth

Family- poverty, bad living conditions, marital instability etc Community- social isolations like few child care centers, church connections etc Culture- approval of physical violence to solve problems