Psychology 230 Unit 2 – Flashcards
Unlock all answers in this set
Unlock answersquestion
PATTERN PERCEPTION Pattern-Infants aged 2 months and older can discriminate patterns similar to adults-even highly complex ones Infants from 0-2, however, can only discriminate moderately complex patterns -Infants see high contrast/ moderately complex patterns and prefer curvilinear rather than linear patterns PERCEPTION OF FACES -Newborn infants track facelike patterns By 2-4 months: -Babies prefer normal drawings of faces to scrambled ones -Babies fixate on internal parts of faces instead of just the edges of faces PERCEPTION OF FACIAL EXPRESSION 3-4 month old infants: -can discriminate between happy and sad faces -Prefer happy faces to sad ones -Show happiness to happy faces and distress to angry faces 6-12 months Social Referencing -Infants can read other's facial expressions and use them to guide their behavior
answer
Describe the methods used to study perception in infants. What do these methods tell us?
question
-When looking at 10x10 checker boxes they see 100x100 When looking at a messed up checkered box they see an all black box -1/2 months
answer
What kinds of patterns can newborns see? When can they see patterns like adults?
question
Prefer food flavorings - (vanilla, strawberry) to strong smells (fish, rotten eggs) -Newborns orient towards breast odor -Newborns suck more vigorously when fluids are sweetened -Lick lips and suck to sweet flavors -Make "yuck" face to bitter and sour
answer
What preferences for smell and taste do infants have? Be able to tell by examples what an infant may perceive with smell and taste.
question
-Put baby in middle of cliff. Put mother on deep side or shallow side. Have mother call baby Gibson's findings -found that infants could avoid deep side shortly after they started to crawl -Concluded that babies could see and understand depth without learning -Put kids in walkers to give them experience with locomotion -Infants with walker experience show an avoidance reaction to depth more so that control infants who had not had walker experience
answer
What are the reactions at different ages to the visual cliff? Why do babies react differently at different ages?
question
General trend -information processing is less perceptually dominated as we get older Example -Learning to control attention by focusing attention and being less distractible -We gradually get better at ignoring irrelevant details in our environment
answer
What is the primary characteristic of perceptual development in childhood and adolescence, as discussed in class?
question
De Casper and Spence (1986) - Mom's read aloud cat in the hat many times in 9th month -After birth, babies sucked more to hear the "Cat in the Hat" than a different one Problem: Sample size was small (n=16), so this finding could be due to change Better Approach: Randomly assign mom's to groups with different stories and a no-story control group
answer
What did the Cat in the Hat study suggest about auditory perception in infants, as discussed in class?
question
Changes in Adulthood -20-40 little sensory decline -40s> Mild sensory and perceptual declines in most people -By age 65, some degree of decline in virtually all people Changes that occur-increases in sensory thresholds. More energy is needed to detect a stimulus (sight, sound, smell) Changes in Senior Year -Lens of eye becomes thicker - Leads to: -More susceptible to glare -Take longer to adapt to changes in light -Too short arms syndrome -Need more light to see -Presbycusis: loss of ability to hear high-pitched tones
answer
How does perceptual development change as we get older in all domains?
question
She found that object permanence is displaying in infants as young as 3-4 months (instead of towards the end of 2 years)
answer
Know the problems with Piaget's theory and how Renee Bialargeon's findings conflict with Piaget's theory
question
Social interactions in which more knowledgable members of society teach us skills. Cognition develops first in a social setting and gradually comes under a child's independent control. Learning from and internalizing communications. Being led towards more complex concepts by others. Continuing throughout our lives w/ new tasks. A continuous process - not in stages
answer
Be familiar with Lev Vygotsky's theory of cognitive development. Know the different terms and be able to ID them for examples
question
Let children know that adults may suggest things, let children know that being questioned is OK and not as ign they are wrong, avoid questioning children repeatedly on a single issue, use open-ended and not leading questions
answer
What advice would you give to a child about to testify based on your knowledge of children's memory?
question
From what age can you first recall events? Infantile amnesia: we cant recall things from first few months of life. Newer research questions this. Rovee-Collier in 1987 3 months old infants learned to make a mobile move by kicking their leg. Up to 3 weeks later they could remember to do this w/ only a brief reminder (seeing mobile move on it's own) but not w/ out reminder Perris (1990) trained 6 months olds to reach for a big bird toy that made a noise in dark. 2 years later they were retested along w/a control group. 1/2 of all children tested (exper ; control) were given a reminder prior to test (heard big bird in dark for 3 seconds). Test session: kids in experiments grp (especially those w/reminder( reached for big bird toy 4 times more often than control group ; were less bothered by being in the dark test room
answer
Be aware of the research on infant memory and its implications
question
Memory span greatly increases. This is due to increase in memory capacity, development in strategy use (ex: chunking and elaboration), and increased knowledge about world. Attention increases in adolescence due to having a better ability to decrease the processing of irrevelent information. Adolescents are better at tasks that require shifting of attention (multitasking).
answer
Be aware of how and why memory and attention changes in childhood and adolescence
question
Our speed for memory processing slows, unfamiliar tasks become harder to remember, explicit memory tasks become a lot more difficult that explicit memory tasks
answer
How do memory and our cognitive change as grow older?
question
Older people do better than young people with the memory for the familiar. Self-fulfilling prophecy: Persons who expect larger declines in memory tend to show more deficits
answer
Know about memory for the familiar, the self-fulfilling prophecy, and different memory strategies.
question
Cardiovascular and other chronic diseases, Substandard housing, Cognitive sedentary lifestyle, Rigid Personality, Marriage partner with low cognitive abilities, Midlife stagnation
answer
What factors predict memory and cognitive decline in the senior years?
question
Cattell ; Horn's View (1970's) Crystallized Intelligence. -Tests of general information. -Tests of word comprehension. Fluid Intelligence -Verbal Analogies -Inductive Reasoning -Spatial Orientation Howard Gardner's Multiple Intelligences -Liguistic Intelligence -Logico-Mathematical Intelligence -Musical Intelligence -Spatial Intelligence -Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence -Interpersonal Intelligence -Intrapersonal Intelligence -Naturalistic Intelligence Sternberg's Triarchic Theory Contextual Intelligence (practical) -Intelligent behavior varies from 1 culture, context, or time period to another -Adapting to the environment you're in - "street smarts" Experiential Intelligence (creative) -Intelligence differs based on experience w/ task -Quick solutions to novel tasks & ability to effeciently process familiar tasks to leave resources for creativity Componential Intelligence (Analytical) -Information processing strategies used
answer
What are the different psychometric theories about what IQ is composed of? know Catell and Horn's, Gardner's and Sternberg's theory of IQ.
question
Genes/heredity has some influence. Home environment (child is member of minority group, a parent is unemployed, family has four or more children, a parent is absent from family, family has experienced a lot of stressful events, a parent has poor mental health, parents have rigid child rearing values). Social class also has an effect (kids from lower class homes tend to score less than the other children. IQ scores have generally increased though, this is called the Flynn effect
answer
What are the factors that influence IQ scores and in what ways do they influence IQ?
question
A review of the research on early interventions concluded that (1) high-quality center-based interventions improve children's intelligence and school achievement, (2) the effects are srongest for poor children and for children whose parents have little education, (3) the positive benefits continue into adolescence(effects are smaller than in early childhood/beginning of elementary school), and (4) the programs that are continued into elementary school have the most sustained long-term effects. Overall this helps show that environment, as well as heredity plays a role in IQ
answer
Know about intervention programs results with IQ
question
Intellectual abilities decrease with age, making IQ not completely stable. Cohort studies show a larger intellectual decrease than longitudinal studies do. Cohort studies even show decline in middle adulthood for some aspects that don't have decline in longitudinal studies.
answer
How does IQ change over time? how stable is it?
question
Assimilation-take in data from the environment and fit in into our theories about the world Examples What is a rattle? -a thing for shaking -a thing for chewing What is a bird? -a thing that flies and sings
answer
Assimilation
question
-We alter our theories about the world to fit the new data Examples -perceiving a rattle ; a ball as shakable, chewable, viewable things -understanding differences between a ball and an apple
answer
Accommodation
question
The awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived (a primary accomplishment of sensorimotor stage)
answer
Object Permanence
question
-Beginning of Sensorimotor Stage (0-1 month) -Infant's cannot imitate others -Middle of Sensorimotor Stage (8-12 months) -Infants will imitate adults but only with body parts they can see on themselves (no faces) -End of Sensorimotor Stage (18-24 months) -Deferred Imitation emerges
answer
Imitation
question
Cooing -2-4 months Babbling -Middle of the first year First words -Between 10 and 15 months, though the average age is 13 months Telographic speech -18-24 months Infants vocabulary spurt start -18 months Complex Sentences -2-3 years of age Vowel and Consonant sounds -3 years
answer
Know ages of acquisition for different language patterns (e.g., cooing, babbling, first words, telegraphic speech, amount of vocabulary, etc.)
question
Nurture/Environmental Contribution: Language Acquisition Support System (LASS)-supports language aquisition by providing the opportunity to communicate, Motherese, Expansions and Recasts Nature Contribution: Language Acquisition Device (LAD)-Children come into world with a Universal Grammar, LAD helps children make inferences about the structure and meaning of language, this all helps children to restrict their choice of words which can then be refined using LASS
answer
Be familiar with the role of nature and nurture in language development
question
Noam Chomsky was a linguist that proposed humans are biologically prewired to learn language at a certain time and in a certain way. Came up with LAD (language acquisition device). LAD is a biological endowment that enables the cihld to detect certain features and rules of language, including phonology, syntax, and sematics
answer
Know who Noam Chomsky is and what his contribution to language development theory is
question
States that Kohlberg's theory discriminates against women. Her argument is: women focus on preserving interpersonal relationships rather than individual justice (Kohlberg's study was only done with males, context is more important than he believed)
answer
Know Gilligan's criticism of Kohlberg's theory, the evidence she uses for the criticism, and the reason she cites for females performance on Kholberg's reasoning tasks
question
Level 1: Orientation toward self-interest Level 1 Transition: From selfishness to responsibility Level 2: Goodness as self-sacrifice Transition 2: From goodness to truth Level 3: The Morality of Nonviolence (research suggests: Both men and women use both justice and caring orientations - no strong gender differences.)
answer
Know the stages of Gilligan's theory of moral reasoning for women - be able to identify what stage someone is in based on their reasoning
question
There are strong cross-cultural differences between the two theories: Non-Western cultures score at Stage 3 of Kohlberg's theory and at highest stages of Gilligan's theory. These are cultures based on caring & empathy
answer
Be familiar with what cross-culture research has to say about Kholberg's and Gilligan's theories
question
Individual's knowledge about memory. Includes general knowledge about memory such as knowing that recognition tests are easier than recall tests. It also encompases ones knowledge about one's own memory, such as knowing if you've studied enough to do as well as you would like on an upcoming test
answer
Metamemory
question
the visual sensory memory (SM) register pertaining to the visual domain and a fast-decaying store of visual information. is described as a very brief, pre-categorical, high capacity memory store. It contributes to visual short-term memory by providing a coherent representation of our entire visual perception for a very brief period of time
answer
Sensory Store
question
The sound system of the language, including the sounds that are used and how they may be combined. The rules that govern phonology describe the sound sequences that can occur in a language
answer
Phonology
question
The units of meaning involved in word formation. The rules of Morphology describe the way meaningful units (morphemes) can be combined in words.
answer
Morphology
question
A minimal unit of meaning; it is a word, or part of a word that can't be broken into smaller meaningful parts
answer
Morpheme
question
Obedience Oriented - It's not bad if there's no punishment Preconventional Level (dominant to age 10)
answer
Kohlberg's Stage 1
question
Intrumental Orientation- YOu scratch my back and I'll scratch yours, what is right is fair to both parties Preconventional Level (dominant to age 10)
answer
Kohlberg's Stage 2
question
(Individual strives to behave in ways that please, help, and recieve approval from others)
answer
Kohlberg's Stage 3
question
Social system morality-"If one person gets away w/it, everyone will" (Individual behavior conforms to societal norms. Doing ones duty and respecting authority) Conventional Level (Developed by 10-13)
answer
Kohlberg's Stage 4
question
Social Contract-"The greatest good for the greatest number" Postconventional Level (most don't achieve)
answer
Kohlberg's Stage 5
question
Universal Ethical principles-If laws violate self-chosen ethical principles (pursuit of liberty), follow principles Postconventional Level (most don't achieve)
answer
Kohlberg's Stage 6
question
b. Sensory input
answer
Perception is BEST defined as the interpretation of a. memory b. sensory input c. language d. an abstract idea
question
a. Sensation and perception
answer
A wave of sound proceeds through the auditory canal to the inner ear where receptor neurons on the basilar membrane are stimulated. The neurons send a message to the brain. When the brain receives the message, the result is a person thinking, "That sounds like my mom calling me for dinner." What has taken place? a. sensation and perception b. sensation but not perception c. perception but not sensation d. neither sensation nor perception
question
c. looking at the outer contour at the interiors of the face
answer
When looking at faces, infants between age one- and two-months shift from a. looking at the top of the face to looking at the bottom of the face b. looking at the bottom of the face to looking at the top of the face c. looking at the outer contour of the face to looking at the interiors of the face d. looking at the interiors of the face to looking at the outer contour of the face
question
a. Beginning of thought
answer
Which is the most advanced substage of the sensorimotor stage? a. beginning of thought b. secondary circular reaction c. coordination of secondary schemes d. tertiary circular reaction
question
b. Symbolic capacity
answer
As two-year-old Newton considers how to get to a cookie that is on a counter that is too high for him to reach, he draws a picture of the counter and then draws a chair next to the counter. He then goes into the next room, grabs a chair, pushes it up to the counter, and grabs a cookie. These actions BEST illustrate the concept of a. class inclusion b. symbolic capacity c. reversibility d. horizontal décalage
question
a. They might suspect that Lenny is cognitively and socially advanced
answer
Four-year-old Lenny has invented an imaginary companion. This imaginary companion is an invisible octopus named Squiggy. How would a Piagetian MOST LIKELY react to Lenny's behavior? a. They might suspect that Lenny is cognitively and socially advanced. b. They would see it as a sign of possible mental illness. c. They would suggest that Lenny cannot decenter from an object. d. They would state that it is impossible for a child that young to create any imaginary companions.
question
c. Seriation
answer
Becky can quickly and accurately arrange sticks from shortest to longest, and crayons from lightest to darkest. This demonstrates a capacity for a. animism b. centration c. seriation d. transitional thinking
question
c. placed too great an emphasis on the ways in which language shapes thought
answer
Piaget has been criticized on all of the following grounds EXCEPT that he a. underestimated the minds of infants and young children b. portrayed changes in cognitive skills as being more abrupt and absolute than they really are c. placed too great an emphasis on the ways in which language shapes thought d. paid too little attention to the influence of social interactions on the shaping of children's minds
question
c. actively processes
answer
The main distinction between short-term memory and working memory is that working memory is a. larger b. unconscious c. actively processed d. sensory based
question
d. The information you access about the concept of long-term memory that you encoded during the previous night's study session
answer
As you are reading this exam question, what would BEST represent information in your long-term memory? a. the light waves as they excite the cells in your visual system b. the words from the question as you read them c. the words from the possible answers as you repeat them in your head d. the information you access about the concept of long-term memory that you encoded during the previous night's study session
question
a. coo, then babble, then word, then holophrase
answer
Which is the typical order of linguistic attainment (from earliest to latest)? a. coo, then babble, then word, then holophrase b. babble, then coo, then word, then holophrase c. coo, then babble, then holophrase, then word d. babble, then coo, then holophrase, then word
question
b. has developed a morality based on rules and authority
answer
Sarah tries to wipe up the juice that she spilled all over the living room floor so that her dad doesn't see that she disobeyed him by taking juice out of the kitchen. This suggests that Sarah a. has an understanding based on desire psychology b. has developed a morality based on rules and authority c. can engage in deceitful behavior, a sign of a theory of mind d. cannot be trusted to make appropriate moral decisions
question
b. is made up of traits that vary and can be measured
answer
According to the psychometric approach to intelligence, intelligence a. aids in adaptation to the environment b. is made up of traits that vary and can be measured c. is fixed at conception by genetic factors d. is organized by stages or levels
question
d. General mental ability
answer
Charles Spearman argued that intelligence was highly influenced by a factor he simply designated as "g." What did "g" stand for? a. global self-worth b. genetic inheritance c. goodness-of-fit d. general mental ability
question
a. Cattell and Horn
answer
Which pair is BEST associated with concepts of fluid intelligence? a. Cattell and Horn b. Atkinson and Shiffrin c. Fechner and Weber d. Spearman and Thurstone
question
c. Creative
answer
According to Howard Gardner, intelligence consists of at least eight distinct abilities. Which of the following is NOT among Gardner's distinct types of intelligence? a. musical b. intrapersonal c. creative d. logical-mathematical
question
a. preconventional
answer
Macy really wants the cool new jacket she has just seen in the store, but she does not have enough money to buy the jacket. For a second she thinks about stealing the jacket but decides that while stealing is not wrong, she might get punished if she is caught. Macy's moral reasoning appears to be at Kohlberg's ____ level. a. preconventional b. conventional c. postconventional d. unconventional
question
d. Insutrumental hedonism
answer
Which of the following would Kohlberg consider the LEAST sophisticated stage of moral thinking? a. authority and social order-maintaining morality b. morality of contract, individual rights, and democratically accepted law c. morality of individual principles of conscience d. instrumental hedonism
question
c. Care
answer
The fact that Meg exhibits great responsibility toward her mother, Lois, and brother Stewie indicates that she is exhibiting what Gillian referred to as a morality of a. truth b. justice c. care d. nurturance
question
b. men and women both use care- and justice-based reasoning
answer
Research on gender differences in moral thinking has shown that a. females and males clearly think differently about moral dilemmas b. men and women both use care- and justice-based reasoning c. there is clear evidence that boys and girls are socialized differently in the area of morality d. males are significantly better at resisting temptation to do wrong
question
a. Phonemes
answer
The basic units of sound in a given language are called a. phonemes b. pragmatics c. semantics d. morphemes
question
a. Vowel-like
answer
A "coo" is best defined as a ____ sound. a. vowel-like b. consonant-plus-vowel c. meaningful d. crying
question
c. Cooing
answer
Six-week-old Beck is lying in his crib and making a melodic sound that might be described as an "ooooh." Beck is BEST thought of as currently a. babbling b. using pragmatics c. cooing d. holophrasing
question
d. Meaning
answer
When someone says, "that's a matter of semantics," they are referring to word a. spelling b. pronunciation c. order. d. meaning
question
d. Morphology
answer
The rules for how to combine sounds into words are the rules of a. semantics b. pragmatics c. syntax d. morphology
question
c. Overextension
answer
Dumbo and his Dad are at the zoo. "Look at those huge foots!" exclaims Dumbo, as they watch an elephant in its cage. Dumbo's error in speech BEST demonstrates a. overregularization b. telegraphic speech c. overextension d. holophrasing
question
d. 10,000
answer
The typical first-grader would begin school with a vocabulary of around ____ words. a. 500 b. 1000 c. 5,000 d. 10,000
question
b. pragmatics
answer
Which of the following terms refers to the set of rules that govern the appropriate use of language in different social contexts? a. phonology b. pragmatics c. semantics d. syntax
question
c. metacomponents; performance components
answer
According to the rules of Sternberg componential subtheory, ____ specify how to solve a problem and ____ carry out the actions of this component. a. interpersonal components; intrapersonal components b. intrapersonal components; metacomponents c. metacomponents; performance components d. performance components; interpersonal components
question
d. referential
answer
Which is NOT one of Sternberg's subtheories of intelligence? a. contextual b. componential c. experiential d. referential
question
d. Recognition
answer
In a police line-up, a witness is shown a group of potential perpetrators that includes the actual perpetrator. He/she is then asked to point to the individual who committed the crime. The basic premise of this method involves assessing ____ memory. a. recall b. cued-recall c. implicit d. recognition
question
a. no memory cues/aids are presented
answer
On a recall memory task a. no memory cues/aids are presented b. a few hints are presented c. a correct answer is presented along with a few distracters d. a correct answer is presented by itself
question
d. implicit
answer
While sitting in her psychology class and daydreaming as her instructor drones on about memory, Wendy suddenly recalls a great hamburger she ate at a fast-food restaurant a month age. Wendy's unintentional recall for this event provides a great example of ____ memory. a. explicit b. fuzzy-trace c. scripted d. implicit
question
a. Pre-conventional
answer
Macy really wants the cool new jacket she has just seen in the store, but she does not have enough money to buy the jacket. For a second she thinks about stealing the jacket but decides that while stealing is not wrong, she might get punished if she is caught. Macy's moral reasoning appears to be at Kohlberg's _______level. a. Pre-conventional b. conventional c. post conventional d. unconventional
