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Learning

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Relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as the result of experience

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Non-Associative Learning

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Learning about a single stimulus (includes habituation)

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Habituation

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Characterized by a decreased behavioral response to an innocuous stimulus

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Sensitization

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A increase in a behavioral response to an intense stimulus

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Associative Learning

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Learning relationships among events (includes classical conditioning, instrumental conditioning and complex learning)

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Classical and Instrumental conditioning both involve

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Forming associations (learning that certain events go together)

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Classical conditioning one event __________ another

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follows

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In instrumental conditioning a response is ______________ a particular ___________

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followed by; consequence

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Complex Learning involves __________ in addition to ____________

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something; forming associations

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The three most important perspectives on psychology are

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the behaviorist, cognitive and biological perspective

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The major key assumptions that the behaviorist perspective made was

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An association between stimulus and response, simple associations of classical and instrumental conditioning are the building blocks of life and that the same basic laws of learning operate regardless of what is being learned and who is doing the learning

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Classical Conditioning

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A learning process in which a previously neutral stimulus becomes associated with another stimulus through repeated pairing with that stimulus

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Pavlov's Experiment (C.C.) involved

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The researcher attaching a fistula on the dog, places the dog by the food pan and summons a bell everytime the food is going to come. The dog begins to salivate.

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Unconditioned Response (salivation in Pavlov's)

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Innate or unlearned response elicited by the UCS

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Unconditioned Stimulus (meat powder)

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a stimulus that automatically elicits a response without prior conditioning

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Conditioned Response

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The learned response

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Conditioned Stimulus

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The learned stimulus

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The ______ mimicked the form of the ____

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CR; UCR

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The ______ simply substitutes for the __________ in order to generate the ________

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CS; UCS; CR

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Trials are

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each paired presentation of the CS and the UCS (repeated pairings strengthen association)

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Acquisition stage of Conditioning occurs when

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is when the organism is learning the association between the two stimuli

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Extinction

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Learning that the CS no longer predicts the UCS

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Spontaneous Recovery

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The original CR returns as time passes following extinction

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Classical conditioning occurs in

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the animal kingdom and in both humans and organisms

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Classical conditioning plays a role in ______________ such as fear

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emotional responses (this includes humans)

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The UCS has always been ____________ significant stimulus such as ____________ or ___________

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biologically significant; food; shock (but other stimulus can acquire the role of a UCS)

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Second Order Conditioning

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CS comes to produce a CR despite never having been paired with an UCS

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Similar stimuli will evoke the ________________

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same response

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Generalization

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The more similar the new stimuli are to the original CS, the more likely they are to evoke the conditioned response

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Discrimination

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Reaction to difference

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Excitatory Conditioning

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The ability of a CS to increase the probability or magnitude of a given behavior

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Inhibitory Conditioning

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The ability of a CS to decrease the probability or magnitude of a behavioral response

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Inhibitory Conditioning is important because it indicates that associative learning is

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bidirectional; increase or decrease in behavior

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In a cognitive perspective, classical conditioning gives an organism new knowledge about the relationship between __________ given the ___ the organism has learned to expect the _____

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two stimuli; CS; UCS

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Temporal Contiguity (Pavlov)

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the two stimuli must occur close together in time for an association to develop

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A cognitive view of classical conditioning was that (predictability)

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The CS must be a reliable predictor of the UCS. The UCS must be predictable

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Predictability and _________ is important because it reliably predicts __________ is coming

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emotional reactions; fear

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Without predictability, organisms are always __________ and _________ as they are never aware of when something is approaching

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fearful; anxious - causing a great deal of emotional baggage

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Ethologists are concerned with the behavior of _________ and the emphasis of ______

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animals;evolution

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An ethologists approach to learning is that

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learning is rigidly constrained by an animal's genetic endowment ad to show that different species learn different things in different ways.

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The "behavior blueprint" is

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that an what an animal learns is genetically determined

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Some constraints to classical conditioning include:

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The way animals learn because they have different lifestyles and may learn things differently (example of rat, bird, light, taste and sickness)

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Instrumental Conditioning

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Certain responses are learned because they operate on, or affect the environment

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In I.C. the organism's behavioral is __________ in obtaining ___________

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instrumental; desired outcomes

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In I.C. once the organism performs a certain behavior the likelyhood of it occuring again

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depends on the consequences

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Law of Effect (Thorndike)

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Selects from a set of random responses only those that are followed by positive consequences (similar to evolution and natural selection)

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Instrumental Conditioning increases the likelihood of a response by

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following the behavior with a reinforcer

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The rate of response is a useful measure of

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instrumental conditioning (the more frequent the response, the greater the learning)

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Reinforcement

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The process whereby the delivery of an appetitive stimulus or the removal of an aversive stimulus increases the probability of a behavior (either positive or negative)

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Positive reinforcement

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Describes a behavior that produces an appetitive stimulus

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Negative reinforcement

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Describes a behavior prevents an aversive stimulus

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Punishment

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the process by which delivery of an aversive stimulus or the removal of an appetitive stimulus decreases the probability of behavior

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Omission Training

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behavior prevents an appetitive stimulus

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Reinforcement produces _____ outcomes and punishment produces ______ outcomes

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good; bad

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If the reinforcer is withheld then

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the behavior should be extinguished

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__________ reinforcement is more effective than _________ reinforcement

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immediate; delayed (the more time that elapses between an instrumental response and reinforcer the weaker the response

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Shaping

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Reinforcing only variations in responses that deviate in the direction desired by the experimenter

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Shaping cannot occur to all _______

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behaviors (operates under biological constraints -raccoons)

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Primary Reinforcers

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satisfy basic drives

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Secondary Reinforcers (conditioned reinforcer)

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Stimulus that has been consistently paired with a primary reinforcer

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Organisms ____________ and _______ what they have learned

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generalized and discriminate

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A _________ stimulus will be useful to the extent that its presence predicts that a response will be followed by reinforcement and its absence will not be followed by reinforcement

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discriminative stimulus

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If instrumental conditioning occurred only with ________ it might play a limited role in our lives

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continuous reinforcement

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Partial Reinforcement is

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when a behavior can be maintained when it is reinforced only a fraction of the time (ex. of pigeon)

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Extinction on partial response is much __________ than extinction following maintenance response of continuous reinforcement

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much slower

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The schedule of reinforcement determines

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the pattern of responding (4 basic schedules: ratio schedules)

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Ratio Schedules (FR, VR)

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reinforcement depends on the number of responses the organism makes

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Fixed Ratio Schedule

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Number of responses that have to be made at fixed particular value (FR: 4 - then 4 responses are required)

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Variable Ratio Schedule

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The organism is still reinforced only after making a certain number or responses but that number varies unpredictable (in VR of 5 sometimes you need 1 or 5 w/ avg of 5 - no way of predicting when the reinforcement is coming)

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Interval Schedules (FI, VI)

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Reinforcement is available only after a certain time interval has elapsed (

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Fixed Interval Schedule

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the organism is reinforced for its first response after a certain amount of time has passed since its last reinforcement

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Variable Interval Schedule

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Reinforcement still depends on a certain interval having elapsed, but the interval's duration varies unpredictably

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Negative or Aversive events (shock or painful events) are often used in

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Instrumental Conditioning

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A response is followed by an aversive stimulus or event is considered

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Punishment (response being weakened or suppressed)

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Punishment is used to _________ the likelihood of _____________ behavior

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decrease; undesirable

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Disadvantages of Punishment are:

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Effects are not as informative as the results of the reward (provides no alternative behavior), by-products of punishment may be unfortunate, extreme or painful punishment may elicit aggressive behavior that is even more serious

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Punishment can work well if

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it is consistent, delivered immediately and alternative response is provided

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Escape Learning (comes before avoidance)

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Organism can learn to make a response to terminate an ongoing aversive event

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Avoidance Learning

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Organisms can learn to make a response to prevent an aversive event from even starting

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Factors critical for instrumental conditioning are:

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temporal contiguity and control

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Temporal Contiguity (IC)

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An instrumental response is conditioned whenever it is immediately followed by a reinforcement

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Control (IC)

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An instrumental response is conditioned only when the organism interprets the reinforcement as being controlled by its response

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IC is only possible when the animal has developed a _____between its responses and reinforcement

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contingency

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Cognitive Map

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A mental representation of the layout of the maze

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Insight Learning (Kohler: Sultan)

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Suggests complex learning involves 2 stages: Problem solving (arrive at a solution) and solution is stored in memory and retrieved whenever needed

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Complex learning is immediate related to

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memory and thinking

Chapter 7: Learning and Conditioning – Flashcards

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