NLN study guide – Flashcards
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plasma membrane
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membrane made up of a double layer of phospholipids and cholesterol and also has proteins embedded. proteins may extend thru entire membrane or only protrude one side. some may also have attached sugar groups. it serves as a barrier and transports substances in and out of cell. externally facing proteins act as receptors
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mitochondria
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Powerhouse of the cell, organelle that is the site of ATP (energy) production; metabolites are broken down and oxidized and used to attach phosphates to ADP molecules and make ATP
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rough ER
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sugar groups attached to proteins in cisternae; proteins boud to vesicles for transport to the Golgi apparatus and other sites; external face synthesizes phospholipids
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smooth ER
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site of lipid and steroid synthesis, lipid metabolism, and drug detox
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Golgi apparatus
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packages, modifies, and segregates proteins from the cell, inclusion in lysosomes and incorporated into the plasma membrane
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peroxisomes
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enzymes detox a number of toxic substances; most important catalase breaks down hydrogen peroxide
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micortubules
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support cell and give it shape; involved in intracelular and cellular movememnts, form centrioles and flagella
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microfilaments
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involved in muscle contraction and other types of intracellular movements, help form cell cytoskeleton
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intermediate filaments
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stable cytoskeletal elements, resist mechanical forces acting on cell
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centrioles
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storage for nutrients, wastes, and cell products
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nuclear envelope
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separates nucleoplasm from the cytoplasm and regulates passage of substances to and from nucleus
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chromatin
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granular material visible within the nucleus; consists of DNA tightly coiled around proteins
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simple diffusion
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kinetic energy; net movement of all molecules from one are of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration along concentration gradient
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facilitated diffusion
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kinetic energy; same as simple diffusion but the diffusing substance is attached to a lipid soluble membrane carrier protein or moves thru a membrane channel
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osmosis
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kinetic energy; simple diffusion of water thru a selectively permeable membrane
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primary-active transport
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transport of substances against a concentration gradient; preformed across plasma membrane by a solute pump directly using ATP hydrolysis
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secondary-active transport
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co-transport of 2 solutes across membrane; energy is supplied indirectly by ion gradient created by primary active transport; symporters move transported substances in the same direction; antiporters move transported substances across the membrane
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pinocytosis
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plasma membrane sinks beneath an external fluid droplet containing small solutes; membrane edges fuse, forming a fluid filled vesicle
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phagocytosis
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"cell eating" an external particle is surrounded by a "seizing foot" and becomes enclosed in a vesicle
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exocytosis
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secretion or ejection of substances from a cell; substance is enclosed in a membranous vesicle which fuses with the plasma membrane and ruptures, releasing substances to exterior
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sodium-potassium pump
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uses an enzyme call Na+-K+ATPase; regulate the Na and K that are inside and outside the cell; needed for excitability of cells; works continuously; releases Na out of the cell and takes in K; need ATP
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channels
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intramebranous proteins that transport substances like ions and water thru the plasma membrane
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cell-life cycle
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series of changes a celll goes thru from the time it is formed until it reproduces
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interphase
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the period of the cell cycle during which the nucleus is not undergoing division, typically occurring between mitotic or meiotic divisions
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mitosis
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process by which the nucleus and duplicated chromosomes of a cell divide and are evenly distributed, forming two daughter nuclei
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cytokinesis
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division of the cytoplasm during cell division
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RNA
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single stranded; can leave the cell; part of protein syntheis by forming chains of amino acids
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amino acids
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consists of codons of mRNA in chains that form proteins
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glycolipid
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lipids with attached sugar group found outside plasma membrane; make up the end of Glycocalyx
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primary germ layers
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make up four primary tissues
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ectoderm
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forms the nervous tissue
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mesoderm
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forms the muscle and connective tissue
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endoderm
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forms epithelium
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stratum basale
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deepest epidermal layer; attached to the dermis layer, also called stratum germintivum; highly mitotic; single row of stem cells
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stratum spinosum
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several layers of cells thick, prickly cells
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stratum granulosum
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3-5 cells thick, process of keratinization is beginning; keratohyaline granules in cells help produce keratin in upper layers and lamellated granules contain water resistant glycolipid
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stratum lucidum
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thin translucent layer found in thick skin like palms and heels; 2-3 cells thick of flat clear keratinocytes
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stratum corneum
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outermost layer of skin; 20-30 cells thick; provides a durable outercoat of body that protects inner cells
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dermis
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strong, flexible connective tissue; papillary layer is areolar connective tissue; reticular layer is coarse irregular dense fibrous connective tissue
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hair
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produced by a hair follicle consists of heavily keratinized cells; has a central medulla, cortex, and outer cuticle, root and shaft portions
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nails
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scale-like modifications of skin; nail matrix is constantly growing
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rule of nines
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divides body into 11 areas each counting for 9% of the body to calculate how much of the body has been burned
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first degree burns
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results in redness, swelling, and pain; tends to heal in 2-3 days without special attention; only affects epidermis
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second degree burns
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affects epidermis and top half of dermis; results in blisters; skin regeneration occurs with little to no scarring in 3-4 weeks
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third degree burns
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full thickness burns; appears grey-white; cherry red or blackened; initally little to edema; since nerve endings have been destroyed there is no pain; skin grafts usually needed
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rotation
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the turning of a bone on its own axis
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flexion
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reduces the angle of the joint
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extension
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increases the angle of the joint
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abduction
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to move away from middle line of body
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adduction
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to move towards middle line of body
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circumduction
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movement of a body part so that it outlines a cone in space
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supination
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turning backward
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pronation
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turning forward
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dorsiflexion
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pointing outwards
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plantar flexion
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flexion of wrist or ankle
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inversion
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foot turns medially
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eversion
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sole facing laterally
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protraction
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jutting out of jaw
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retraction
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pulling jaw back
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depression
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moving elevated body part inferiorly
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opposition
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touching thumbs to tips of fingers of same hand
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plane joints
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allow only short axial gliding movements
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pivot joint
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uniaxial rotation of one bone across its own axis
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condyloid joint
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allows flexion and dorsiflexion, adduction and abduction and circumduction
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saddle joints
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found in fingers
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muscle contraction
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calcium ions released after a nerve signal and binds with troponin and triggers tropomyosin to shift, exposing the actin filaments active sites. myosin binds with available sites of actin forming cross-bridges. myosin heads release ADP and used phosphate from ATP used as energy and moves toward midpoint sarcomere, pulling actin with it (power-stroke) Z discs pulled together and H zones get smaller, sarcomeres shorten
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fetal blood flow thru heart valves
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placenta delivers oxygen rich blood to the veins leading to the heart and throughout the fetal body; arteries carry oxygen low blood out of the body to the placenta
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diastole
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period of cardiac cycle when either artia or ventricles are resting
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systole
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period of cardiac cycle when either atria or ventricles are contracting
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purkinje fibers
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modified ventricular muscle fibers of the conduction system of the heart
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SA node
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specialized myocardial cells in the wall of the right atrium; pacemaker of the heart
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AV node
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specialized mass of conducting cells located at the atrioventricular junction of the heart
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bundle of his
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bundle of specialized fibers that conduct impulses from the AV node to the right and left ventricles; also called atrioventricular bundle
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P wave
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atrial depolarization
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QRS
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ventricular depolarization and atrial re-polarization
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ST interval
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entire ventricles are depolarized
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T wave
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ventricular re-polarization begins
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neutrophils
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phagocytize bacteria
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platelets
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fragments of megakaryocytes; needed in coagulation of blood
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eosinophils
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kill parasitic worms; complex role in allergy and asthma
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basophils
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release histamine and other mediators of inflammation; contain herapin, an anticoagulant
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lymphocytes
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mount immune response by direct cell attack or via antibodies
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monocytes
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phagocytosis; develop into macrophages in the tissues
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erythropoietin
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EPO; hormone released from the kidneys to stimulate RBC production
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albumin
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60% of plasma proteins; produced by liver; main contributor to osmotic pressure
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globulins
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30% of plasma proteins; alpha and beta- bind to ions, lipids, and fat soluble vitamins; gamma- antibodies released by plasma cells during immune response
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fibrinogen
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4% of plasma proteins; produced by liver, forms threads of blood clots
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coagulation
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phase 1- prothrombin activator formed; phase 2- prothrombin activator converts prothrombin into thrombin (enzyme); phase 3- thrombin catalyzes fibrinogen molecules into a fibrin mesh that traps blood cells and effectively seals the hole until blood vessel is repaired
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blood pressure maintenance
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depends on cardiac output, peripheral resistance, and blood volume, vasomotor center regulates cardiac output and blood vessel diameter; baroreceptors detect changes in blood vessel diameter
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physiological response to exercise
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increases respiratory pump, activity of muscular pump, and sympathetic venoconstriction- increases venous return- increases end diastolic volume- increases stroke volume- increases cardiac output
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hyperventilation
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an increased depth and rate of breathing greater than demanded by the body needs
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hypoventilation
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Reduction in the volume of air that enters the lung for gas exchange; oxygen exchange insufficient to meet metabolic demands of the body
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PCO2
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if levels rise the CO2 accumulates in the brain and results in carbonic acid dissociation; the H+ that are released stimulate the chemoreceptors in the brain stem and increase the depth and rate of breath
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control of respiration
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nerves in the medulla and pons, medulla contains rhythm generating and integrative center; pons smooths out transitions between inspiration and expiration
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blood pH
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if CO2 levels are high then the pH of the blood drops; if the CO2 levels are low then the pH rises
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PO2
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O2 sensors that cause the respiratory centers to increase ventilation; significant drops in PO2 needed to increase ventilation
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salivary glands
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parotid, submandibular, sublingual; secretes saliva (salivary amylase, water, electrolytes, mucin, metabolic wastes)
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stomach
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different layers of muscle used to digest food; rugae helps grind up food; gastrin released to increase HCl secretion; histamine released to activate parietal cells to release HCl; serotonin released to contract stomach muscles; somatostatin released to inhibit gastric secretions of all products; vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) released to inhibit acid secretion; pepsin used to digest proteins
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gallbladder
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thin-walled muscular sac on the ventral surface of the liver; stores and concentrates bile by absorbing its water and ions; releases bile via the cystic duct that flows into the bile duct
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bile
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yellow-green solution containing bile salts, bilirubin, cholesterol, fats, phospholipids, and electrolytes
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pancreas
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under stomach, spleen connected to it; pancreatic islets secrete insulin and glucagon; acini secrete pancreatic juice; zymogen contain digestive enzymes; pancreatic juice neutralizes chyme and has electrolytes, amylase, lipases, nucleases, proteases
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CCK (cholecystokinin)
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potentiates secretin's actions on organs; also involved in anxiety, pain, memory; inhibits appetite
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enzymes that digest proteins
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pepsin (stomach); trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase (pancreatic proteases); aminopeptidases, carboxypeptidases, dipeptidases (brush border enzymes)
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enzymes that digest nucleic acids
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pancreatic ribonucleases and deoxyribonuclease
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liver
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lobed accessory organ that overlies the stomach; produces bile to help digest fats and serves other metabolic and regulatory functions
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hypothalamus
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region of the diencephalon forming the floor of the third ventricle of the brain
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posterior pituitary gland
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hypothalamic-hypophyseal tract; oxytocin and ADH
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anterior pituitary gland
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hypophyseal portal system; GH, TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH, PRL
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growth hormone-GH
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produced by somatrophs in the anterior pituitary; stimulates liver, skeletal muscle, bone and carilage to produce insulin-like growth factors, but targets bone and skeletal muscle
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thyroid-stimulating hormone-TSH
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produced in anterior pituitary; stimulates normal development and secretory activity of the thyroid
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andernocorticotropic hormone- ACTH
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produced by anterior pituitary; stimulates adrenal cortex to release corticosteroids
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follicle-stimulating hormone-FSH
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produced by anterior pituitary; stimulates gamete production
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luteinizing hormone-LH
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produced by anterior pituitary; promotes production of gonadal hormones
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prolactin-PRL
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produced by anterior pituitary; stimulates milk production
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oxytocin
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stored in posterior pituitary; stimulates contractions during childbirth and also triggers milk ejection in women producing milk, plays role in sexual arousal and orgasms
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antidiuretic hormone-ADH
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stored in posterior pituitary; also known as vasopressin; responds to changes in solute concentration in the blood
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thyroid hormone-TH
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2 related compounds T4 (thyroxine) and T3 (triiodothyronine); produced by thyroid gland; major metabolic hormone; maintains BP, regulates tissue growth, develops skeletal and nervous system, reproductive capabilities
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calcitonin
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produced in C cells of thyroid gland; inhibits osteoclast activity and release of Ca2+ from bone; stimulates Ca2+ uptake and incorporation into bone matrix
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parathyroid hormone-PTH
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released by parathyroid gland; stimulates osteoclasts to digest bone matrix; enhances reabsorption of Ca2+ and secretion of phosphate by the kidneys; promotes activation of vitamin D
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aldosterone
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mineralocorticoid released by the adrenal cortex; stimulates Na+ reabsorption and water retention by the kidneys
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cortisol
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glucocorticoid released by adrenal cortex; keeps blood sugar levels relatively constant; maintains BP by increasing action of vasoconstrictors; causes gluconeogenesis; promotes rise in blood glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids
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androgens (estrogen and testosterone)
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gonadocorticoids released by adrenal cortex; contributes to onset of puberty, appearance of sex characteristics, and sex drive
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epinephrine and norepinephrine
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secreted by adrenal medulla; cause blood glucose levels to rise, blood vessels to constrict, heart to beat faster, blood to be diverted to the brain, heart, and skeletal muscle; epinephrine stimulates metabolic activities, bronchial dilation, and blood flow to skeletal muscles
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melatonin
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derived from serotonin and released from pineal gland; affects timing of sexual maturation and puberty, day/night cycles, physiological processes that show rhythmic variations
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glucagon
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released from pancreas; major target is liver; promotes glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis, and release of glucose to the blood
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insulin
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released by pancreas; lowers blood glucose levels; enhances glucose transport into fat and muscle cells; part of neural development, learning and memory; inhibits glycogeolysis and gluconeogenesis; increases cellular respiration; glycogenesis; converts glucose to fat
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progesterone
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maturation of female organs, appearance of female secondary sex characteristics, and breast development and cyclic changes in uterus mucosa
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atrial natriuretic peptide-ANP
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released by heart; reduces BP, BV, and Na+ concentration in blood 176. Erythropoietin- released by kidneys; signals production of RBCs
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renin
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released by kidneys; initiates renin-angiotensin mechanism
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cholecalciferol
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released by skin; precursor to vitamin D
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lepton
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released by adipose tissue; involved in appetite control and stimulates increased energy expenditure
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thymus
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releases thymulin, thymopoietins, and thymosins; all involved in normal development of T lymphocytes in immune response
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osteocalcin
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released by osteoblasts; produces pancreatic beta cells to divide and secrete more insulin, improving glucose handling and reducing body fat
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kidney
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removes toxins, metabolic wastes, and excess ions from the blood; regulated blood volume, chemical composition and pH; gluconeogenesis
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mechanism of urine formation
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1. glomerular filtration; 2. tubular reabsorption (returns all glucose, amino acids, 99% of water, salt and other components to the blood; 3. tubular secretion (reverse of reabsorption, selective addition to urine
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nephron
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structural and functional unit of kidney; consists of glomerulus and renal tubule
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urine
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95% water, 5% solutes, Na+, K+, PO4(3-), SO4(2-), Ca2+, Mg2+, HCO3-, urea, uric acid, and creatinine
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hormonal regulation of male repo. function
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GnRH stimulates FSH and LH; FSH stimulates release of androgen-binding protein (ABP) which makes spermatogenic cell receptive to testosterone, LH stimulates release of testosterone which triggers spermatogenesis
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hormonal regulation of female repo. function
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GnRH stimulates FSH and LH which trigger growth of several follicles and estrogen release, estrogen inhibits LH and FSH; sudden LH surge at day 14 which triggers ovulation and transforms ruptured follicle into corpus luteum which forms inhibin, progesterone, and estrogen; inhibits LH and FSH release, ends luteal activity and inhibits follicle development; days 26-28 corpus luteum degenerates and ovarian hormone levels drop sharply
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menstration
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days 1-5 menstrual phase: ovarian hormones are at lowest, gonadotropins beginning to rise, stratum functionalis is shed and menstrual flow occurs; days 6-14 proliferative phase: estrogen levels prompt generation of new functional layer, increases synthesis of progesterone receptors in the endothelium, glands enlarge and spiral arteries increase in #; days 15-28 secretory phase: endothelium prepares for implantation of embryo, progesterone causes spiral arteries to form functional layer
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conception
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the developing of offspring
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implantation
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completed by the 12th day after ovulation; after conception, cell divides after 36 hours, by 72 hours 16 or more cells, at day 3 or 4 forms a blastocyst that floats for 2-3 days, implantation begins 6-7 days after ovulation and is complete by the 12th day
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stages of labor
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dilation stage: 6-12 hours, longest part of labor, initial weak contractions, cervix opens 10cm, amnion ruptures and releases amniotic fluid; expulsion stage: strong contractions every 2-3 minutes about 1 min long, urge to push increases, crowning occurs, delivery of infant; placental stage: strong contractions continue and cause detachment of placenta and compression of uterine blood vessels, delivery of afterbirth occurs about 30 min after birth, all placental fragments must be removed to prevent postpartum bleeding
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central nervous system- CNS
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brain and spinal cord; integrating and command center of the nervous system; interprets sensory input and dictates motor responses based on reflexes, current conditions, and past experiences
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peripheral nervous system-PNS
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the part of the nervous system outside of the CNS; mainly consists of the nerves that extend from the brain and spinal cord; 2 main divisions: sensory and motor
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spinal nerves
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carry impulses to and from the spinal cord
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cranial nerves
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carry impulses to and from the brain
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sensory division
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part of the PNS; afferent; consists of nerve fibers that convey impulses to the CNS from sensory receptors throughout the body
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motor division
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part of the CNS; efferent; transmits impulses from the CNS to effector organs (muscles and glands); has to major parts: somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system
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somatic nervous system
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composed of somatic motor nerves fibers that conduct impulses from the CNS to skeletal muscles; often referred to as voluntary nervous system
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autonomic nervous system-ANS
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consists of visceral motor nerve fibers that regulate activity of smooth and cardiac muscles and glands; also referred to as the involuntary nervous system; has 2 functioning subdivisions: parasympathetic division and sympathetic division
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sympathetic division
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prepares body for activity or to cope with some stressor; fight or flight response; increased heart rate
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parasympathetic division
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oversees digestion, elimination, and glandular function; rest and digest; decreased heart rate
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multipolar neuron
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have 3 or more processes, one axon and the rest dendrites; most common neuron in human body, 99% of neurons; major neuron type in CNS
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bipolar neuron
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have 2 processes and axon and a dendrite that extend from opposite side of the cell body; rare neurons found in special sense organs
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unipolar neuron
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single short process that emerges from cell body and divides like a T, a central process that enters the CNS and a peripheral process that is associated with a sensory receptor; found chiefly in the ganglia in the PNS where they function as sensory neurons
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reflex arc
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reflexes that occur over neural pathways; rapid automatic responses to stimuli
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acetocholine-ACh
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first neurotransmitter to be identified; released at neuromuscular junctions; synthesized from acetic acid and choline by the enzyme family cholinesterase; enables muscle action, learning and memory
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fight or flight response
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body provides energy, reflexes, and strength needed to respond to stressors; epinephrine (adrenaline) released, preps body for quick action by triggering: increased breathing to increase O2 levels, increased heartbeats to increase blood flow, muscles tense up for quick movement, pupils dilate and increase light intake for sensitive vision, decreased digestion, and increased blood glucose for increase energy in body
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myelin sheath
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fatty insulating sheath that surrounds all but smallest nerve fibers; protects and electrically insulates fibers and increases speed of impulse transmission
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astrocyte
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a type of CNS supporting cell; assists in exchanges between capillaries and neurons
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ependymal cells
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a type of CNS supporting cell; lines the central cavities of the brain and spinal cord
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microglia
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a type of CNS supporting cell; can transform into phagocytes in the areas of neural damage or inflammation
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oligodendrites
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a type of CNS supporting cell that composes myelin sheaths
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satelites cells
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a type of supporting cell of the PNS; surround neuron cell bodies located in PNS; assists in exchange between capillaries and neurons
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schwann cells
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a type of supporting cell of the PNS; forms myelin sheaths and is vital to peripheral nerve fiber regeneration
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synapse
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functional junction between 2 neurons or a neuron and an effector cell
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dopamine
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influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion; "feeling good" neurotransmitter
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serotonin
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affects mood, hunger, sleep, and arousal
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GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)
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a major inhibitory neurotransmitter; results in impaired motor control
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glutamine
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a major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory and learning
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endorphins
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natural opiates; pain perception; inhibit pain
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tachykinins
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mediates pain transmission in PNS; also involved in respiratory and cardiovascular controls and mood
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somatostatin
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often released with GABA; gut-brain peptide hormone; inhibits growth hormone release
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adenosine
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caffeine, tea, and chocolate stimulate by blocking adenosine receptors; may be involved in sleep-wake cycle and terminating seizures; dilates arterioles, increasing blood flow to heart and other organs
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neurotransmitter receptors
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either channel-linked receptors or G-protein linked
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action potential
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large transient depolarization event, including polarity reversal that is conducted along the membrane of a muscle cell or nerve fiber
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depolarization
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Na+ flows into the cell
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repolarization
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K+ flows out of the cell
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hyperpolarization
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caused by K+ continuing to leave the cell
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resting state
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when no ions are moving in or out of cell
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diencephalon
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thalamus: sensory impulses ascending to sensory cortex inputs subcortical motor cortex, impulses from lower centers; hypothalamus: important ANS control center, water balance, regulates thirst, hunger, body temp, gastrointestinal activity, and anterior pituitary gland activity; and epithalamus: pineal gland extends from posterior border
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brain stem
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midbrain: visual and auditory reflex centers, subcortical motor center, pain suppression; pons: conduction area, regulates respiration; medulla oblongata: regulates respiratory rhythm, heart rate, BP, cough, sneeze, vomit, swallow centers in medulla
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cerebellum
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frontal: reasoning, planning, problem solving, parts of speech, movement, and emotion; parietal: movement, orientation, recognition, perception of stimuli; occipital: visual processing; temporal: perception and recognition of auditory stimuli, memory, and speech
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chemoreceptor
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receptor sensitive to various chemicals in solution
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mechanoreceptor
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receptor sensitive to mechanical pressure such as touch, sounds, or exerted by muscle contraction
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nociceptor
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receptor sensitive to potentially damaging stimuli that result in pain
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osmoreceptor
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structure sensitive to osmotic pressure or concentration of solution
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photoreceptor
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specialized receptor cells that respond to light energy; rods and cones
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retina
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neural layer of the eyeball; contains photoreceptors
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lens
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biconvex, transparent, flexible, elastic and avascular; allows precise focusing of light on the retina; cells of lens differentiate into lens fibers that form the bulk of the lens
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depth perception
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both eyes view the same image from slightly different angles; depth perception results from cortical fusion of the slightly different images
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pharyngotympanic tube
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connects the middle ear to the nasopharynx; equalizes pressure in the middle ear cavity with the external air pressure
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ear bones
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malleus, incus, and stapes; transmit vibratory motion of the eardrum to the oval window; causes amplified sound
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bony labyrinth
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tortuous channels in the temporal bone; vestible, semicircular canals, and cochlea
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vestibule
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central egg-shaped cavity of the bony labyrinth; saccule is continuous with the cochlear duct; utricle is continuous with the semicircular canals; house equilibrium receptor regions; responds to gravity and changes in the position of the head
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semicircular canals
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3 canals that each define 2/3 of a circle; membranous semicircular ducts line each canal and communicate with the utricle; ampulla of each canal houses equilibrium receptor region called the crista ampullaris; receptors respond to angular movements of the head
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cochlea
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spiral, conical, bony chamber; extends from the vestible; coils around bony pillar; contains the cochlear duct, which houses the spiral organ of Corti and ends at cochlear apex
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agglutination
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clump of foreign cells induced by cross-linking of antigen-antibody complex
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antibody
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protein molecule released by plasma cell (daughter cell of activated B cell) that binds specifically to antigen; immunoglobulin
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antigen
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substance tor part of a substance recognized as foreign by immune system, activates immune system, reacts with immune cells
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autoimmunity
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product of antibodies or effector T cells that attack a person's own tissue
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cell-mediated immunity
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immunity conferred by activated T cells which directly kill infected or cancerous body cells or cells of foreign grafts and release chemicals that regulate immune response
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clonal selection
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B or T cells activated by binding with antigen
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cytokinesis
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small proteins that act as chemical messengers between various parts of the immune system
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cytotoxic T cells
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effector T cell that directly kills foreign cells, cancer cells, or virus-infected cells by inducing apoptosis
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helper T cells
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orchestrates cellular immunity by direct contact with other immune cells and releasing chemicals called cytokines, also helps to mediate humoral response by interacting with B cells
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humoral immunity
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immunity conferred by antibodies present in blood plasma and other body fluids
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immune system
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a functional system whose components attack foreign substances or prevent their entry into body
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killer T cell
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effector cell that directly kills foreign, cancer, or virus-infected body cells by inducing apoptosis
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Treg cells
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population of T cells (CD4) that suppress immune response
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T cells
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lymphocytes mediate cellular immunity; mature in thymus
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B cells
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oversee humoral humoral immunity; differentiate into antibody-producing plasma cells; mature in red bone marrow
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antibody structure
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T or Y shaped monomer of 4 looping linked polypeptide chains; 2 identical H chains and 2 identical L chains
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IgM
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first antibody released; agglutinating agent; fixes and activates complement
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IgA
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in mucus and other secretions; helps prevent entry of pathogens
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IgD
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attached to surface of B cells ; B cell receptor
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IgG
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75-85% of antibodies in plasma; secondary and late primary responses; crosses placental barrier
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IgE
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active in some allergies and parasitic infections; causes mast cells and basophils to release histamine
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specific immunity
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adaptive defense; 3rd line of defense; attacks particular foreign substances; takes longer to react
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non-specific immunity
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innate defense; 1st and 2nd defense; first line is external body membranes; second is antimicrobial proteins, phagocytes and other body cells; inhibit spread of invaders; inflammation is its most important response
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inflammatory response
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triggered whenever body tissues are injured by physical trauma, intense heat, irritating chemicals, or infection. prevents spread of damaging agents; disposes of cell debris and pathogens; sets stage for repair
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complement fixation
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main antibody defense against antigens; several antibodies bind close together in cellular antigen; complement binding sites trigger complement fixation into cell surface; complement triggers cell lysis, amplifies inflammatory response, opsonsization, enlists more defensive agents
