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Gregory Bateson:

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1940s

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research on schizophrenia family treatment legitimized

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1950s

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expansion of family therapy (research, publications)

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1960s

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publication reached a peak (various training centers)

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1970s

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integration to utilize aspects of each of the models of family therapy

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1980s

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criticism regarding lack of attention to gender related issues, complacency

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1990s

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Walsh (2002) articulates common tenets of systematic models of family therapy

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Systems Paradigm

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The whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Components of a system can be understood only within the context of the whole system. (Walsh-Systems paradigm)

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Nonsummativity

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Define the borders that separate a family system fro other systems. This makes the family a distinct entity. (Walsh-Systems paradigm)

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Boundaries

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replaces linear cause and effect (walsh-systems paradigm)

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Circular casuality

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affects all other parts of the system. (Walsh-Systems paradigm)

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A change in one part of a system

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they seek homeostasis or equilibrium. (Walsh-Systems paradigm)

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Systems tend to be self-regulating;

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feedback mechanisms attempt to bring the family back into equilibrium. Feedback is when a portion of a system's output returns to or is fed back into the system. (Walsh-Systems paradigm)

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When a family system is out of balance,

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can become problems themselves. (Walsh-Systems paradigm)

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The methods used to restore equilibrium

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organization and functioning of that system. Entropy, the tendency toward disorder, and negentropy, openness to change and reorganization, both act on systems. (Walsh-Systems paradigm)

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The quantity and direction of energy in a system have an impact on the

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the entire family system rather than focussing on one individual in the family (Walsh-Systems paradigm)

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A family systems perspective focuses on relationships within

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is the concept that there are multiple causes for any behavior or event and multiple effects flowing from any behavior or event. This is one of the fundamental concepts of the systems perspective. (Walsh-Systems paradigm)

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Equifinality

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Counseling of couples necessitates exclusion of other significant family members. Although it is important to work with the entire system, there are times when it may be most appropriate to work solely with the marital dyad: 1. Addressing problems directly related to the marital relationship. 2. Attempting to clearly mark the boundaries around the parental subsystem. 3. Respecting the couple's privacy.

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Exclusion of All but the Marital Dyad

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1. Attitudes and beliefs: belief in multiple realities; therefore, every perception is equally valid. Perceptions are fallible; therefore, differences can promote growth rather than struggle. People are basically neutral or benign. The motives of one's partner are usually decent. Human encounters are typically rewarding. Partners have a systemic perspective: an individual needs to be part of a group in order to have definition, coherence, and satisfaction. Causes and effects are interchangeable. Behavior is a result of many variables rather than a single cause. Humans are limited and finite and therefore cannot meet the many needed satisfactions to be found in relationships. Behavioral patterns: overt power difference is minimal. There are clear boundaries. The couple operates primarily in the present. There is a respect for individual choice. Skill in negotiating is apparent. Positive feelings are shared.

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Characteristics of a Healthy couple (Beevar & Beevar, 1996)

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1. a legitimate source of authority established and supported overtime. 2. a stable rule system established and consistently acted upon. 3. Stable and consistent sharing of nurturing behavior. 4. Effective and stable childbearing and marriage-maintenance practices. 5. A set of goals toward which the family and each individual works. 6. Sufficient flexibility and adaptability to accommodate normal development challenges as well as unexpected crises.

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Characteristics of a healthy family as listed by Beevar and Beevar (1996)

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refer to the predictable marker events or phases through which a family progresses. 1. Early stages: Forming and nesting (coupling is when family begins by establishing a common household with two people. Task: shift from individual independence to couple interdependence. Becoming three is the stage initiated by the arrival of the first child. Task: interdependence to incorporation of dependence) 2. Middle Stages: Family separation process (entrances-exit of first child, task: dependence to partial independence. expansion-phase marked by entrance of last child into world, task: support of continuing separations. exits-first complete exit of dependent member of family, task: partial separations to first complete independence. 3. Last stages: finishing: becoming smaller/extended is exit of last child form family, task: continuing expansion of independence. endings are the final years that begin with the death of one spouse and continue to death of other partner, task: facilitation of family mourning. Working through final separations

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Life Cycle Stages (Goldenberg and Goldenberg (2000)

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Traditional gender roles in the family system have been under scrutiny in recent trims. These roles are modeled and taught from an early age by family and society at large. There has been an increase in the awareness of gender's influence on family interaction. This awareness has led to recognition of the need to overcome gender stereotypes and co-create new interactive patterns. Although roles are still typically unequal in terms of work distribution, the pattern of gender-linked behaviors, expectations, and attitudes regarding gender roles is changing.

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Gender Issues

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David Scharff & Jill Scharff other: Nathan Ackerman, Robin Skynner, Samuel Slipp, James Famo, Melanie Klein It is an integration of psychoanalytic theory, object relations theory, and family therapy. Uses these while working toward understanding and growth: principles of listening, responding to the unconscious, interpreting, developing insight, working with the transference and countertransference. According to this model, the family is perceived as a system comprised of sets of relationships that function in ways unique to that family system.

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Psychodynamic Family Therapy

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Therapists seek to understand the development of the individual personality in the context of early parent-child relationships. They also "expand the family's capacity to perform the holding functions for its members and their capacities to offer holding to each other." Aid family in expressing true understanding and compassion.

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Goals of Psychodynamic Family Therapy

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The therapist is to provide a nurturing safe environment in which unconscious object relations that are interfering with the current relationships may be understood and resolved.

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Role of the counselor in Psychodynamic Family Therapy

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The symptom serves the purpose of aiding the therapist in identification of the ego identity and the factors involved in its evolution. The focus shifts from the symptom to the relationship to the objects.

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Role of the symptom in Psychodynamic Family Therapy

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The process of introjection and identification determine: the personality, organization of mental processes, and the manner in which individuals relate to each other. The key issues in development include: internalization and externalization of relationships, attachment and separation, introjection and projection, transmuting internalization.

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Normal Family development in Psychodynamic Family Therapy

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develop when children mistakenly attribute the qualities of one person to another person resulting in distorted perceptions.

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Development of behavioral disorders in Psychodynamic Family Therapy

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the combination of the study of individuals and their basic motives (psychoanalysis) and the study of social relationships (family therapy). "One looks for the dynamic and personal historical reasons for problems in current relationships"

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Object Relations Theory (Psychodynamic Family Therapy)

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refers to children separating their internal world into good and bad aspects. This is an evolving process consistent with their developmental stage.

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Splitting (Psychodynamic Family Therapy)

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Differentiation-occurs when children develop to the point that they can explore aspects of mother and others. Practicing-the stage in which children explore the world Rapprochement-occurs as children have an increased awareness of their vulnerability and separateness. They repeatedly return to mother for reassurance. Object relations constancy-achieved as the child realizes his/her separation but relatedness to his/her parents.

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Four phases of development in object relations (Psychodynamic Family Therapy)

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refers to elements of an individual's earlier experience and suggests that a person is being related to based on an amended version of the other person involved.

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Transference (Psychodynamic Family Therapy)

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is the reciprocal interaction of the other person in the face of transference

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Countertransference (Psychodynamic Family Therapy)

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are mental images of the self and others built from experience and expectation.

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internal objects (Psychodynamic Family Therapy)

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Introjection-"the child reproducing and fixating his/her interactions with the environment by organizing memory traces that include images of the object, the self interacting with the object, and the associated affect (can be good or bad)" Identification-involves the internalization of a role. The child takes on certain roles and behaves as his/her parents did. Ego Identity-a synthesis of identifications and introjections. It provides a sense of coherence and continuity.

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Internalization (Psychodynamic Family Therapy)

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emphasizes the need for closeness, yet separateness in order to achieve whole object relations.

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Holding environment (Psychodynamic Family Therapy)

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neither self nor object yet are treated as if they were the beloved parent and the self

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Transitional objects (Psychodynamic Family Therapy)

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of the defensive projective identifications that have been required in the family

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Recognition and reworking (Technique-Psychodynamic Family Therapy)

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for family members so that their attachment needs and conditions for growth may be achieved

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Provide contextual holding (Technique-Psychodynamic Family Therapy)

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of the necessary holding relationships between each of its members to support their needs for attachment, individuation, and growth

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Reinstatement or construction (Technique-Psychodynamic Family Therapy)

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appropriate to its tasks as determined by its own preferences and by the needs of the family members.

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Return of family to overall developmental level (Technique-Psychodynamic Family Therapy)

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so they can be met with as much support as is needed from the family

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Clarification of individual needs (Technique-Psychodynamic Family Therapy)

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Virginia Satir The basic philosophy underlying the model begins with the belief that humans have an innate growth tendency in terms of body, mind, and feelings. Systems (both human and greater systems) are viewed as holistic systems and are viewed as continually interacting via communication to form a dynamic whole. The basic components in these systems are: rules influence roles which have an impact on the effectiveness of functioning and an awareness of experience in the here and now allows for growth to occur in individual, family, and larger societal systems--The focus of therapy lies on enhancing self-esteem and addressing interpersonal communication.

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Satir's Experiential Family Therapy

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The general goal is to facilitate growth in the family and between its members in terms of self-esteem and effective communication. Other goals: instill hope and encouragement in family members; access, enhance, and create coping skills; facilitate growth-oriented movement in the family beyond simple symptom relief by releasing and directing energy that was previously tied up in symptomatic behaviors

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Goals of treatment-Satir Experiential

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To create a comfortable, safe environment in order to encourage the ability to families to examine their behavior. To reframe negative emotions such as anger as pain and encourage expression of feeling in therapy. To educate clients in their roles of self-control and accountability. To address non congruent communication regarding content and process messages. To model congruent communication.

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Role of the counselor- Satir Experiential

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symptoms are framed within a relational perspective. Symptoms signal blockages in growth. The balance of the system is maintained through this blockage and has a survival connection to the system.

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Role of the symptom-Satir Experiential

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Functional families fulfill seven functions through clear communication in the family system, effective roles, and implementation of family roles that are: (few in number, reasonable, relevant, flexible, consistently applied) The seven mutually reinforcing functions: 1. to provide a sexual experience for the mates. 2. To contribute to the continuity of the race by producing the nurturing children. 3. To cooperate economically by dividing labor between adults according to gender, convenience, and precedents and between adults and children according to the child's age and gender. 4. To maintain a boundary (by the incest taboo) between the generations so that smooth task-functioning and stable relationships can be maintained. 5. To transmit culture to the children by parental teaching. 6. To recognize when one of the members is no longer a child but has become an adult, capable of performing adult roles and functions. 7. To provide for the eventual care of parents by their children.

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Normal Family Development -Satir Experiential

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The family is a closed system with poor interchange of information and resources within and without the system. Such interchange is maladaptive and rigid. The presence of dysfunction in one member is symptomatic of dysfunction in one of the larger systems (usually the family). Coping is viewed as the problem rather than the presence of stress or difficulty. Rules are fixed, arbitrary, and inconsistently applied. These rules maintain the status quo and are geared toward maintaining the self-esteem of the parents. The end result is chaos of the family.

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Development of behavioral disorders (Satir Experiential)

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referes to the value persons place on themselves. This is regulated by mutual appreciation and depreciation. Individual self-esteem depends on one's level of autonomy from external validation. Family self esteem is the value placed on the family by its members.

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Self Esteem (Satir Experiential)

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is the manner in which we send and receive information. It is the primary influence on relationships. Communication and self worth are viewed as the foundation of the family system. Congruent communication is direct, clear communication at the verbal and nonverbal levels. Feelings and experience are matched by words. Noncongruent communication involves distorted, incomplete messages. It is ambiguous and typically involves double binds.

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Communication (Satir Experiential)

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Blamer-this individual accuses others and controls Placater-goes along with others, pleases, avoids conflict Super reasonable-over analytical and little emotion Irrelevant-distracts others and cannot focus Congruent-engages in honest, open communication of both thoughts and feelings

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Roles of family members (Satir Experiential)

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are typically unspoken and influenced by the family roles. Rigid rules are associated with dysfunction. There is little possible change in the rules regardless of circumstances or family development. Flexible rules are present in families with congruent communication.

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Rules of the family (Satir Experiential)

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Self is the core. Individual growth occurs through eight aspects of the mandala: physical body, intellect, emotions, the five senses, social needs, nutritional needs, life space needs, and spiritual needs.

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Human mandala (Satir Experiential)

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is a psychodrama technique in which a family member enacts a feeling or family structure. The goal is to offer a symbolic representation of family dynamics.

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Family sculpting (Satir Experiential)

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is a history collected by the therapist. It traces the family time line and offers them an accepting environment in which to share relationship patterns.

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Family life fact chronology (Satir Experiential)

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is the rebuilding of the family through the reenactment of certain aspects of family history. The information for this reconstruction is typically taken from the family chronology.

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Family reconstruction (Satir Experiential)

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is reinterpretation of problems in order to shift the perspective of the client system.

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Reframing (Satir Experiential)

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is the therapist making the presuppositions of the family overt as they are viewed in the behavior of the family.

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Verbalizing presuppositions (Satir Experiential)

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describes the giving of behavioral descriptions for feelings (such as love) in order to determine the individuals' perception of what must happen in order for them to perceive they are receiving that behavior. It is typically languages in terms of sensory-based representational systems such as visual, auditory, or kinesthetic.

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Denominalization (Satir Experiential)

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the process of relating a physical stimulus (ie. a touch on the shoulder) with previous experience.

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Anchoring (Satir Experiential)

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therapy with several unrelated family systems.

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Multiple family therapy (Satir Experiential)

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Carl Whitaker others: Walter Kempler, David Keith, August Napier, Fred and Bunny Duhl It emphasizes the immediate here and now. The focus of therapy is the quality of ongoing experience. Emotional expression is considered to be the medium of shared experience and the means to fulfillment.

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Whitaker's Experiential Family Therapy

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The aim of therapy is to help individuals grow and to enable them to do so in the context of their families. To enable family members to experience themselves both as a system and as individuals who are able to become unstuck.

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Goals of Treatment (Whitaker's Experiential)

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The therapist is caring and enters the system. The role of expert is assumed and directives are offered to the client. The therapist maintains a neutral stance. Through the phases of therapy, the therapist gradually increases the level of anxiety experienced by the family. Through paradox, the therapist escalates pressure to produce a psychotic-like episode so the client will reintegrate in a new and meaningful manner.

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Role of the Counselor(Whitaker's Experiential)

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Although symptom relief is viewed as important, it is secondary to: increased personal integrity, greater freedom of choice, less dependence, expanded experiencing

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Role of the symptom(Whitaker's Experiential)

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Healthy families are able to self-actualize. They grow despite the problems and pitfalls they encounter along the way. They have similar processes of interaction that demonstrate appropriate levels of autonomy and a high degree of role flexibility. The family members are free to join and separate as they choose. The family has its own set of stories, and the various systems are open and available for interaction with other systems in their network. No one family member is the primary symptom-bearer. Each member carries the symptom from time to time.

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Normal Family Development(Whitaker's Experiential)

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Dysfunctional families deny feelings and are either enmeshed or disengaged. They are self-protective and avoid risk-taking. They are rigid and mechanical rather than spontaneous and free. They have a belief that confrontation and open conflict would destroy the family, so the family is unable to grow. Alienation from experience, leading to a lack of autonomy and intimacy, is the key to a family's dysfunction. It is portrayed both in individual problems and in interpersonal relationships. The battle for control of whose family of origin will provide the model for procreation also plays a role in dysfunction.

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Development of Behavioral Disorders (Whitaker's Experiential)

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pragmatic and non theoretical.

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The model of (Whitaker's Experiential) is

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systematic model. He believed that one should substitute theory with experience and the ability to allow the process of therapy to unfold in an authentic and responsive manner.

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Whitaker refused to create a

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is a key instrument in therapy.

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The personality of the therapist (in Whitaker's Experiential)

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Engagement: joining takes place Involvement: the longest, middle phase and involves the highest level of change for the therapeutic process. As the client becomes more committed to therapy, he/she is more invested in change occurring. Disentanglement: the final phase and involves the gradual separation of therapist from client. At this phase, the therapist should have empowered a client and reinforced the need for continued growth.

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Three phases of therapy (Whitaker's Experiential)

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as efforts for growth

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Redefining symptoms (Whitaker's Experiential)

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fantasy alternatives to real-life stress

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Modeling (Whitaker's Experiential)

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interpersonal stress and intrapersonal stress

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Separating (Whitaker's Experiential)

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practical bits of intervention

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Adding (Whitaker's Experiential)

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the despair of a family member

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Augmenting(Whitaker's Experiential)

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is the focus on and emphasis on exploration of feelings

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Affective Confrontation (Whitaker's Experiential)

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like children and not like peers

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Treating Children (Whitaker's Experiential)

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Salvador Minuchin others: harry Aponte, Charles Fishman, Bernice Rosman, Jorge Colapinto, Braulio Montalvo Munichin offered a theory of family structure. He believed that families come into therapy because they see themselves as stuck. Therapy is designed to unfreeze a family from these rigid patterns of behavior and create the opportunity for new structures to emerge.

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Structural Family Therapy

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The goal is to change the underlying systemic structure of the family and thereby address the presenting problems. Secondary goals specific to the problem are determined by diagnosis of the structure and the therapeutic stage.

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Goals of Treatment (Structural Family Therapy)

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The therapist becomes an active participant in the system in order to change the structure. The therapist takes on the role of expert and is active and directive. The therapist is encouraged to use a flexible approach and integrate his/her personal style.

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Role of the counselor (Structural Family Therapy)

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Typically one family member will serve as the symptom bearer in order to relieve pressure from the dysfunctional family system. The family is then enabled to focus its attention on the symptom bearer rather than on the pain it is experiencing.

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Role of the symptom (Structural Family Therapy)

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The family develops in stages of increasing complexity. Their task is to blend individual growth with integration as a member of the family system. There are four stages: Couple formation-takes place as two individuals negotiate boundaries with families of origin, reconcile divergent life styles, and develop rules of interaction. Family with young children-the marital dyad structure reorganizes to adapt to the role of parents. Family with school age and adolescent children-takes the family into a phase of interaction with external systems such as the school system and peers; the family must deal with issues relating to loss of parental control an increasing autonomy of the children. Family with grown children-reorganizes its structure form parental to adult-to-adult interaction.

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Normal Family Development (Structural Family Therapy)

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Behavioral disorders occur when family structures are inflexible and they cannot adjust to the developmental or environmental stressors. The dysfunction arises because the family cannot realign its structure in order to meet these challenges. The inflexibility may be due to inherent flaws in the structure or in the ability to transition to the next family stage. There are four forms of pathology associated: pathology of boundaries-boundaries are too rigid or too diffuse. pathology of alliances-relationships that are not conducive to family functioning are either conflict detouring or inappropriate cross-generational coalitions. pathology of triad-two members have an alliance against a third member. pathology of hierarchy-a child is parentified and a parent is excluded from the parental subsystem.

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Development of Behavioral Disorders (Structural Family Therapy)

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the invisible covert set of functional demands of codes that organize the way family members interact with one another. It is the internal organization that dictates how, when, and to whom to relate. It is shaped partly by universal and partly by idiosyncratic constraints.

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Family Structure (Structural Family Therapy)

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components of a family's structure. They exist to carry out various family tasks necessary for the functioning of the system. Subsystems are defined by interpersonal boundaries and rules of membership. Subsystems may be temporary alliances (father and son going to a ball-game) or long term (parents, siblings). The most common subsystems are spousal, parental, and sibling.

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Family subsystems (Structural Family Therapy)

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refer to the invisible barriers that regulate contact between individuals. The degree of permeability (on a continuum from rigid to diffuse) determines the level of contact. Rigid boundaries lead to impermeable barriers between the subsystems. This results in disengaged family in which the subsystems (typically parent and child) are separate and distinct. Although autonomy is maintained in a disengaged family, it is at the expense of nurturance, closeness, and involvement.

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Boundaries (Structural Family Therapy)

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excessively blurred and indistinct. The members typically have little generational hierarchy and parents and children easily trade roles. The system is referred to as being enmeshed in which proximity and intensity in family interactions is extreme and family members are over involved in each other's lives. Family members have difficulty developing relationships outside the family system.

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Diffuse boundaries (Structural Family Therapy)

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between subsystems in a family help maintain separateness ye at the same time emphasize connection to the overall family system.

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Clearly defined boundaries (Structural Family Therapy)

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or alliances-are emotional or psychological connections that are defined by the way family members join together or oppose one another. A triangle is a dysfunctional alignment. This refers an individual aligning with another against a third individual.

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Alignments (Structural Family Therapy)

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has to do with both authority and responsibility. It refers to the relative influence of each family member on an operation's outcome.

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Power (Structural Family Therapy)

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are alliances between specific family members against a third. Stable coalitions are fixed and inflexible connections that become a part of normal family life. Detouring coalitions are when a conflictual pair holds a third family member responsible for their difficulties, thus decreasing the stress on themselves or their relationship. For parental success, there must be clearly defined: generational boundaries, alignments between parents on key issues, and rules related to power and authority

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Coalitions (Structural Family Therapy)

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are for the purpose of establishing an effective working relationship between the therapist and the client system. Accommodation: occurs when the therapist modifies their language, tone, or style in order to join with the client. Maintenance: the act of the therapist focusing or highlighting certain behaviors in order to increase the functional aspects of the family structure. Tracking is the use of clarification or amplification of communication to reinforce individuals or subsystems. Mimesis: the adoption of the clients' communication style by the therapist.

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Joining and accommodating techniques (Structural Family Therapy)

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directly impact the family structure--- Structural map: symbolic representation of a family's structure. It places emphasis on boundaries and coalitions. Enactment: the therapist directs the family to perform an interaction. It can be directly related to the presenting problem or be more benign. Escalation of stress: the heightening of tension in the family in order to force the members to accept the restructuring. Boundary making: takes place as the therapist assists the family in setting new boundary rules, renegotiating old rules, or establishing specific functions for each system. Utilizing the symptom: occurs when the therapist changes the function of the symptom in the family by encouraging, de-emphasizing, or relabeling it. Mood manipulation: occurs as the therapist attempts to change the modo or pacing of the family in order to bring more energy to the session or lead the family to a more reflective frame of mind. Support, education, and guidance-takes place as the therapist provides instruction to the family for various presented needs.

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Restructuring techniques(Structural Family Therapy)

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Jay Haley and Cloe Madanes This theory views families as rule-governed systems. Symptoms are believed to be maintained by the system and, likewise, to maintain the system. The family is prevented from achieving its purpose as a family by ongoing destructive cycles of interaction.

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Strategic Family Therapy

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The primary goal is to address the presenting problem. Therapists may also address the relational dynamics connected to the symptom but are to avoid working toward insight into relational processes.

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Goal of treatment (Strategic Family Therapy)

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The therapist is neutral, directive, and in control of the session. They take on the role of an expert. They maintain focus on the problem. The therapist provides a supportive yet challenging environment.

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Role of the Counselor (Strategic Family Therapy)

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Symptoms serve the purpose of maintaining the family system. The symptom is a strategy used for controlling a relationship when other strategies have failed. Vying for control is seen as inevitable. It becomes pathological only when one or both partners deny their attempts to control.

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Role of the Symptom (Strategic Family Therapy)

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The family is viewed as developing as it progresses through a family life cycle consisting of the following stages: marriage, birth of first child, reduction in family size, advanced aging. As the family moves from one stage to the next, the functional family is an open system. Clear boundaries, adaptability, and organization. Parents are at the top of the family hierarchy. Clear communication is utilized by family members to face the challenges of transition from one developmental stage to the next along with other problems that arise.

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Normal Family Development (Strategic Family Therapy)

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Hierarchical structure is unclear or inappropriate. Problems are addressed at an inappropriate level in the hierarchy. Families either deny a problem exists or create a problem where none exists.

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Development of behavioral disorders (Strategic Family Therapy)

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is the decision-making structure of a family. It is based on age, gender, roles, or education.

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Hierarchy (Strategic Family Therapy)

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are formed by the joining of two family members against a third. This typically disrupts the family hierarchy by placing a child in a parental role.

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Alliances and coalitions (Strategic Family Therapy)

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two levels: 1. digital-is content-focused communication. This communication is rigid and is typically transmitted to one referent. Difficulty occurs when only digital communication is accepted as relevant without taking other forms of communication into consideration. 2. Analogic-communication that is conveyed through body language and symbolism. The therapist must have an understanding of this form of communication among individuals in order to view the problem within a relational context.

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Communication (Strategic Family Therapy)

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patterns of family interaction that have become problematic within the system. They are the root of the concern that brings the family into therapy.

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Symptoms(Strategic Family Therapy)

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the problem stated by the family that brings them in for therapy.

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Presenting problem (Strategic Family Therapy)

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refers to the struggle to be in control and to make the rules of the family.

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Power (Strategic Family Therapy)

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assignments given by the therapist to be performed between sessions. They are a key intervention and are either straightforward or paradoxical

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Directives (Strategic Family Therapy)

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can include advice, explanations, or suggestions. It is expected that the family will not resist the task. These directives are designed to change the interactional sequence of the family. Metaphorical tasks are tasks given that are not directly related to the problem. It indirectly facilitates change due to the symbolism and content. Devil's pact is the commitment a family makes to follow a rigorous task before the task is disclosed by the therapist.

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Straightforward directives (Strategic Family Therapy)

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involve tasks in which success is based on either there family defying the instructions or following them to an absurd extreme and then withdrawing. Reframe-the therapist offers an alternative, typically positive, view of the presenting problem; this view impacts the cognitions and behavior of the family. Prescribing the symptom-the client is directed to perform the symptomatic behavior; if the client follows the directive, he/she can give up the symptom. Restraining changes-when the family begins to change, the therapist warns them against changing too fast; this prepares the family for relapse. Pretend technique-the identified patient is asked to pretend to have the symptomatic behavior and the other members are asked to pretend to help; this changes the context and places the symptom under their control. Ordeals-the therapist prescribes an ordeal that is equal or greater than the distress of the symptom itself; the task makes it more difficult for the family to have the symptom than to give it up.

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Paradoxical directives (Strategic Family Therapy)

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is a bolstering of the morale of the family. The therapist reframes the therapeutic context and symptom by focusing on the success they have had.

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Empowerment (Strategic Family Therapy)

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the therapist utilizes interview skills to obtain an assessment and diagnosis of the family system

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Structured interview (Strategic Family Therapy)

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Murray Bowen others:Thomas Fogarty, Edwin Friedman, Philip Guerin, Michael Kerr This theory believes the main dysfunction manifested in troubled families is emotional fusion. Although people need togetherness, emotional fusion is an exaggeration of this need. The goal of therapy is a high level of differentiation of self. A person with a high level of differentiation is able to be close to others but maintain a healthy autonomy.

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Bowen Family Systems Therapy

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Decrease anxiety. Increase the differentiation of self. Pay attention to both process and structure (Process refers to patterns of emotional reactivity and structure refers to patterns of interlocking triangles)

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Goals of Treatment (Bowen Family Systems Therapy)

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Coach, researcher, active expert. The counselor becomes the third side of a therapeutic triangle. Works most often with the parental dyad.

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Role of the Counselor (Bowen Family Systems Therapy)

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The symptom will typically identify the most vulnerable person in a triangle. The therapist will utilize this knowledge to identify the participants in the triangle and, beginning with the individual with the highest level of differentiation, work to aid the family in increasing their levels of differentiation.

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Role of the symptom (Bowen Family Systems Therapy)

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Family members have a high level of differentiation. Anxiety in the family is low. Parents have differentiation form their own families of origin.

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Normal Family Development (Bowen Family Systems Therapy)

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The higher the level of differentiation, the greater the flexibility and resilience in dealing with stress. The lower level of differentiation, the less stress needed to provoke symptoms. In order to stabilize the stress-filled symptom, triangulation occurs: If the third party remains neutral, the anxiety lessens and symptoms lessen. If the individual becomes emotionally involved, however, the likelihood of symptom development increases. The most vulnerable person in the triangle (typically a child) is most likely to develop symptoms and be the focus of conflict.

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Development of Behavioral Disorders (Bowen Family Systems Therapy)

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the cornerstone of Bowen's theory. It is the ability to maintain a distinction intrapsychically and interpersonally. The intrapsychic aspect of differentiation involves a distinction between rational thought and emotionality. The interpersonal component refers to the balance between separateness and togetherness. A high level of differentiation denotes the ability to maintain a balance on both these continuums. A low level of differentiation (also referred to undifferentiation) demonstrates a tendency toward either rationality/emotionality or separateness/togetherness.

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Differentiation of Self (Bowen Family Systems Therapy)

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the basic building block in a family's emotional or relational system. During periods when anxiety is low and external conditions are calm, a two-person system will engage in direct communication. When tension mounts, one or both persons will pull in a third person in order to reestablish stability. The triangle dilutes the anxiety, is more stable and flexible than a twosome, and has higher tolerance for stress. Triangles are typically interlocking and involve an increasing number of people as tension mounts.

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Triangles (Bowen Family Systems Therapy)

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the manner in which anxiety is projected from individuals onto the family. The lower the level of differentiation of the spouses, the higher the amount of emotional fusion between them. This increased fusion can result in: overt marital conflict, reactive emotional distance, physical or emotional dysfunction, an projection of problems onto one or more of the children.

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Nuclear family emotional system (Bowen Family Systems Therapy)

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Family projection process refers to the manner by which parents transmit their dysfunction to their children. This transmition of undifferentiation occurs through the triangulation of the most vulnerable child or children.

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Family projection process (Bowen Family Systems Therapy)

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Emotional cutoff is extreme emotional distance between two individuals. This typically occurs in a marital dyad. It can also accompany physical cutoff as a child attempts to deal with unresolved emotional fusion with the family of origin.

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Emotional Cutoff (Bowen Family Systems Therapy)

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describes the process by which severe dysfunction is a result of decreasing degrees of differentiation over several generations. As an individual chooses a spouse with a similar level of differentiation and family projection process occurs, the child will attain a lower level of differentiation.

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Multigenerational transmission process (Bowen Family Systems Therapy)

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refers to Bowen's belief that children develop fixed personality characteristics based on their sibling position in their family of origin. These characteristics will be played out in their marriage in relation to the spouse's birth order.

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Sibling Position (Bowen Family Systems Therapy)

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suggests that the emotional process of society impacts the emotional process of the family. As society at large biomes more anxiety ridden, the result is isomorphic with that of the family leading to lower levels of differentiation.

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Societal regression (Bowen Family Systems Therapy)

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devices for organizing material regarding one's family of origin. The venogram is a schematic drawing listing family members, relationships, ages, dates of birth, marriages, deaths, and other significant information regarding the family and relationship dynamics.

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Genograms (Bowen Family Systems Therapy)

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Process questions are questions that address the patterns of interaction. They are designed to decrease the level of reactivity and give the individuals time to think about their participation in the interpersonal patterns.

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Process questions (Bowen Family Systems Therapy)

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is a triangle including the therapist. The therapist remains uninvolved emotionally, and discussion is channeled through him/her. This technique enables the therapist to decrease the level of anxiety in the session and model a high level of differentiation.

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Therapeutic Triangle (Bowen Family Systems Therapy)

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Milan group: Mara Selvini-Palazzoli, Gianfranco Cecchin, Luigi Boscolo, Guiliana Prata This model is systemic in nature and views patterns of interaction as being handed down from one generation to the next.The change process is viewed as important with the family being given a long time between sessions in order to attain the maximum amount of change. Change of behavior as well as cognition is the focus of therapy.

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Milan Systemic Family Therapy

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The rules of the family game are the focus of therapy. A primary goal is to aid the family in making the rules overt and gaining control over them. Although the therapy team may have a goal in mind for the family, the family may create a solution of their own. Another goal is to help the family understand the role of the symptom in its functioning

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Goals of Treatment (Milan Systemic Family Therapy)

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The therapist is a participant in the family system. The therapist views the relationship as recursive in that he/she impacts the family as the family impacts him/her. Three aspects of the therapist's role: Neutrality, promoting change through prescriptions to change the rules of the family game, and making the rules of the came overt. Although the therapist maintains control of the session, he/she should attempt to avoid imposing his/her expert perspective on the client. The style is non confrontational and typically involves a team approach.

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Role of the Counselor (Milan Systemic Family Therapy)

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A family member, usually a child, will manifest a symptom in order to protect some of the family members. It is believed that the symptom serves a function in the system and that the family organizes itself around this symptom. The symptom is a key to determining the rules of the family game.

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Role of the Symptom (Milan Systemic Family Therapy)

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The Milan group has placed minimal emphasis on healthy families and tries to avoid applying preconceived models to families. They do, however, appear to believe that families should have clear generational boundaries.

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Normal family development (Milan Systemic Family Therapy)

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The family game demonstrates the dysfunction of the family. The game can involve extended family members and take place over a long timeframe. There are power alliances, typically across generations, that make up the rules of the game and maintain it.

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Development of behavioral disorders (Milan Systemic Family Therapy)

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refers to the recursive nature of living systems. This concept was the underlying foundation for neutrality, hypothesizing, and circular questioning.

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Circularity (Milan Systemic Family Therapy)

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are explanations offered by the team regarding the role of the symptom in the family and how the family organizes around it.

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Hypotheses (Milan Systemic Family Therapy)

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refers to the system that is organized around the presenting problem. This can involve the family, the school, friends, etc.

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Significant system (Milan Systemic Family Therapy)

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is the belief that symptoms serve a logical and purposeful function within the system.

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Positive connotation (Milan Systemic Family Therapy)

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are the organizational patterns around which a family interacts. Symptoms may arise when one of these patterns is affecting a family member in a detrimental manner.

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Family games (Milan Systemic Family Therapy)

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are connections between two individuals that may exclude a third. These can be healthy (as in two parents) or pathological (a parent and a child.)

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Alliances (Milan Systemic Family Therapy)

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1. Telephone Interview 2. Pre-session meeting of the team in order to formulate initial hypothesis. 3. session 1-involves an interview of the extended family and friends while the team observes. Both the therapist and the team gather information regarding the rules of the family game. The therapeutic system takes a break in order for the team to revise its hypothesis and prepare the prescription. The prescription is given to the family in the form of a positive connotation. 4. Session 2-involves only the nuclear family. Changes in the family are recognized and assessment occurs on issues more specific to the nuclear family. This session involves: a connecting phase, analysis phase, and testing phase 5. Session 3-focuses on the parents alone. Assessment continues, and the team gives the parents a prescription for change. 6. Session 4-through the final session focuses on reviewing parental observations regarding the prescription and addressing responses to additional prescriptions provided by the team.

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Standard Treatment Process (Milan Systemic Family Therapy)

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a paradoxical injunction in which the therapist directs the family members to perform the symptomatic behavior. If the family follows the prescription, the symptom is under their control. If they do not follow it, they give up the symptom.

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Prescriptions (Milan Systemic Family Therapy)

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are prescriptions that engage the family in a series of actions that run counter to or exaggerate the rigid family rules or beliefs.

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Rituals (Milan Systemic Family Therapy)

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a reframing of the symptom. The therapist attributes positive motives to the symptomatic behavior. It is typically states that the symptom serves the purpose of maintaining the rules of the family game.

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Positive connotation (Milan Systemic Family Therapy)

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is a process of asking questions designed to let clients see themselves in a relational context and to see that relational context from the perspective of other family members. Questions are structured in a manner that one must give a relational description in the answer.

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Circular questioning (Milan Systemic Family Therapy)

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is central to the Milan model. The therapists speculate about the role of the symptom and the manner in which the family is organized around it. This occurs before the family comes to the initial session and throughout the therapeutic process. If the team does not have a hypothesis ahead of time, it is believed that they may "buy into" the family's problem definition.

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Hypothesizing (Milan Systemic Family Therapy)

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Albert Ellis and Aaron Beck others: donald Baucom, frank datillio, and norman epstein This model is based on behavioral therapy that teaches the concepts of classical conditioning and operant conditioning. Operant conditioning is suited for families in that it addresses reinforcement. Operant conditioning espouses that behaviors that are positively reinforced will be repeated and behaviors that are punished or ignored will be extinguished. CBFT is based on the premise that behavior is maintained by its consequences.

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Cognitive Behavioral Family Therapy

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Rather than focusing on systemic change, the goal is to eliminate undesirable behavior and increase positive behavior. the family determines the desired change, typically in the form of a presenting problem. The therapist empowers the family to solve their own problems through education and assistance via increased understanding. Focus on cognitions occurs as the therapist teaches the family that emotional problems are caused by irrational beliefs and that by changing these distortions overall quality of life will improve.

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Goals of treatment (cognitive behavioral Family therapy)

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The therapist takes on a directive role as the expert on behavior and cognitions. The therapist models appropriate behavioral strategies for communication and conflict resolution. Another task the therapist acquires is that of assessing the cognitive distortions of the client and educating them on more appropriate ways to handle their thought processes.

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Role of the Counselor (cognitive behavioral Family therapy)

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symptoms are considered to be learned responses. They are involuntarily acquired and reinforced. The symptoms are the focus of therapy. The lead to the responses of the family members that reinforce the symptomatic behavior.

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Role of the symptom (cognitive behavioral Family therapy)

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The focus is on the current behavior. Little attention is given to past development, either normal or dysfunctional. A good relationship is viewed as having a balance of give and take. There is an exchange of pleasant behavior and minimal unpleasant behavior. Communication skills are considered to be the most important feature of good relationships. Conflict resolution is also deemed vital to the maintenance of healthy relationships. Family schemata, as taught by the parents' families of origin, are applied to the marriage and to the rearing of children.

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Normal Family development (cognitive behavioral Family therapy)

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They develop as a result of reinforcement by family members. Illogical beliefs and distortions are the foundation of emotional distress. Four mean by which family's cognitions, behavior, and emotions may interact and build a volatile climate: The individual's own cognitions, behavior, and emotion regarding family interaction. The actions of individual family members towards him/her. The combined reactions several family members have toward him/her. The characteristics of the relationships among other family members.

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Development of Behavioral Disorders (cognitive behavioral Family therapy)

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(causes) are responses not automatically elicited by stimuli. Their occurrence is affected by their consequences.

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Operant responses (cognitive behavioral Family therapy) (just behavioral)

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(effects) are those under the control of stimuli. Their consequences do not affect the frequency of occurrence.

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Respondent responses (cognitive behavioral Family therapy) (just behavioral)

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are consequences that affect the rate of behavior, either accelerating or decelerating it. Reinforcers are consequences that accelerate behavior. (Negative reinforcers are aversive consequences. Positive reinforcers are rewarding consequences) Punishers are consequences that decelerate behavior (aversive control is the implementation of a negative reinforcer such as spanking. Withdrawal of positive consequences refers to the absence of positive reinforcers)

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Reinforcements (cognitive behavioral Family therapy) (just behavioral)

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occurs when no reinforcement follows a response. The cessation is not immediate.

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Extinction (cognitive behavioral Family therapy) (just behavioral)

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says that people maximize profits and minimize costs. In a functional relationship, the individual partners attempt to maximize a rewarding relationship. In a dysfunctional relationship, both partners focus on self-protection rather than maximizing the happiness of their partner.

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The theory of social exchange (cognitive behavioral Family therapy) (just behavioral)

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are believed to exert mutual influence on each other. Members of a family influence and are influenced by each other.

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Family relationships, cognitions, emotions, and behavior (cognitive behavioral Family therapy)

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are beliefs the family members have about the family. The beliefs are formed through years of interaction among the different members. Two separate sets of schemata are maintained: beliefs regarding family of origin and beliefs about families in general.

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Family schemata (cognitive behavioral Family therapy)

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Shaping: occurs when there is a deliberate attempt to create a new response. Contingency contracts: involve the parents agreeing to make certain changes if a child makes certain agreed upon changes. Contingency management: consists in giving or taking away rewards or punishments based on the behavior of the child. Token economies: utilize a system of stars or points to reward a child for successful behavior. Time out: is a punishment in which a child must sit in a corner or a room for a specified length of time.

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Operant techniques (cognitive behavioral Family therapy)

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involves modification of physiological responses. This can include desensitization, assertiveness training, aversion, and sex therapy

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Respondent conditioning (cognitive behavioral Family therapy)

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thought-stopping: involves the raising of awareness of automatic thoughts with the intent of gaining control over them. The client is taught methods to replace these automatic thoughts with more balanced cognitions. Rational emotional emphasis: is to help family members see how illogical beliefs and distortions serve as the foundation of their emotional distress. As the individual addresses these distortions, the emotional intensity with which they deal will decrease.

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Cognitive affective techniques (cognitive behavioral Family therapy)

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Steve DeShazer and Insoo Berg others: Eve Lipchik, Bill O'Hanion, Jane Peller, Michelle Weiner-Davis, and John Walter This model is based on the belief that when the focus is drawn to exceptions or solutions to problems, change is more likely. Problem cause is de-emphasized, and therapy tends to be brief and goal-focused.

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Brief Solution Focused Family Therapy

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to help clients resolve their complaint by helping them change their focus. This leads to a different perspective and a greater level of satisfaction with their lives. The therapist believes that this perspective becomes apparent once clients begin moving toward their desired goal. It is necessary, therefore, for a goal or goals to be determined early in therapy.

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Goals of treatment (Brief Solution Focused Family Therapy)

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The therapist is viewed as a partner in the therapeutic process. Although he/she is directive regarding the shift in focus, the family is viewed as the experts of their situation. The therapist emphasizes exceptions and solutions in a warm and caring manner. Change is expected, and therapy is brief.

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Role of the counselor (Brief Solution Focused Family Therapy)

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The symptom or complaint is what brings the family to therapy. It is used to enable the family to focus on when the complaint does not occur and the times the family is successful. Although the symptom may be incorporated into the goal formulation, it is de-emphasized as the family shifts their focus to solutions.

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Role of the symptom (Brief Solution Focused Family Therapy)

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Families are not viewed as functional or dysfunctional. Through his/her belief in multiple realities, the therapist does not want to impose his/her perspective of what is normal. The therapist is interested in language and the way language is utilized to provide a description of the complaint.

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Normal Family Development (Brief Solution Focused Family Therapy)

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As is consistent with the solution focus of therapy, therapists themselves focus on how families are effective rather than on what they are doing wrong. Solutions to problems are viewed as separate from problem formation. It is, therefore, unnecessary to try to determine causality.

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Development of Behavioral Disorders (Brief Solution Focused Family Therapy)

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this shifts attention from the problem to the solution. This can take the form of addressing attempted solutions that do not work, but it primarily helps the client have a future-oriented focus on what he/she can do rather than what he/she does not want to do.

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Focus on Solutions (Brief Solution Focused Family Therapy)

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refers to the belief that there is no resistance. Clients want to change, and what therapists view as resistance is in reality communication regarding what works and what does not work. Therapy is collaborative and flexible to deal with each client type.

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Death of resistance (Brief Solution Focused Family Therapy)

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considered to be the presenting problem

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Complaint (Brief Solution Focused Family Therapy)

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Visitors-in therapy because it is mandated or because someone has brought them. They have no complaint and are welcomed but not given an assignment. Complainants-expect a solution for their complaint but do not believe they need to change. They are typically given an observational assignment. Customers-those clients that come in with a complaint and are prepared to change. The goal with all clients is to help them move to this frame of mind.

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Client types (Brief Solution Focused Family Therapy)

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refers to the joining process of therapy. The therapist communicates understanding of the complaint in a nonjudgemental manner.

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Therapeutic fit (Brief Solution Focused Family Therapy)

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It is believed that a small change in the system is all that is needed to enable a client to reach his/her goals. Change occurs quickly once initiated.

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Small change leads to large change (Brief Solution Focused Family Therapy)

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the belief in multiple realities and that these realities are co-created. Constructivist therapist believe that language shapes reality. The therapeutic process enables the client to envision multiple solutions, none of which is more correct than another.

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Constructivism (Brief Solution Focused Family Therapy)

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emphasizes the belief that clients want to change and that if they have a clear, attainable goal, they will move toward it.

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Negotiation of goals (Brief Solution Focused Family Therapy)

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times hen the problem does not take place. The therapist directs the attention of the client toward times when the problem does not take place in hopes of encouraging more frequent exception-oriented thinking.

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Exceptions (Brief Solution Focused Family Therapy)

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is a homework assignment routinely given in the first session. The client is asked to observe the exceptions or what happens in his/her relationship that he/she wants to continue.

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The formula first session task (Brief Solution Focused Family Therapy)

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is a question asked for the purpose of clarifying the goal(s) the client wants to achieve. The client is asked to imagine that while he/she was sleeping a miracle happened and the problem was solved. The client is asked to describe what would be different?

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The Miracle Question (Brief Solution Focused Family Therapy)

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aid in clarification of ambiguous goals or feelings. An example is "on a scale of one to ten with one being the way you felt when you called and ten being the way you would feel after the miracle, how do you feel right now?" "What would move you from a 2 to a 3?"

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Scaling questions (Brief Solution Focused Family Therapy)

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focus on the strengths of the client. The therapist asks the client what he/she has done to be able to cope with the problem. As the client answers, the therapist is noting the strengths the client describes.

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Coping Questions (Brief Solution Focused Family Therapy)

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occurs as the therapist aids the client in understanding that others experience what he/she is experiencing. This aids the client in perceiving that he/she is normal rather than pathological or hopeless.

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Normalizing (Brief Solution Focused Family Therapy)

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Michael White and David Epston others: Alan Parry and Robert Doan comes from a social constructionist perspective. It utilizes the metaphor of a narrative to help clients understand that they can overcome the problem-saturated story of their lives and embrace a new story. The importance of language is stressed and clients are shown how language can oppress or liberate an individual through the process of therapy.

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Narrative Family Therapy

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to enable people to write a new story that emphasizes their preferred ways of relating to themselves and to others. This is accomplished by removing the problem form their identity through externalization of the problem. A new story is authored through deconstruction of the problem-saturated story and reconstruction of a new narrative.

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Goals of Treatment (Narrative Family Therapy)

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The therapist has a collaborative stance and views the family as having expertise regarding their story. The role of the counselor, therefore, is that of an editor or publisher. The counselor has expertise in drawing out the story of the client and helping him/her to reauthor that story.

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Role of the Counselor (Narrative Family Therapy)

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The symptomatic behavior is based in the reality of the problem-saturated story. As long as the client accepts an identity based on this story, he/she will act accordingly. When his/her perspective of himself/herself changes to a more positive frame, he/she is free to act in a manner that does not include the problem.

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Role of the symptom (Narrative Family Therapy)

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Narrative therapists avoid imposing standards of what is normal or abnormal. It is believed that these standards are oppressive to marginalized populations. Narrative therapists avoid placing labels or diagnoses on people as it is believed this encourages the therapist to view individuals as objects. Nichols and Schwartz state that narrative therapists believe "people: have good intentions-they don't want or need problems, are profoundly influenced by the discourses around them, are not their problems, and can develop alternative, empowering stories once separated from their problems and from the cultural common wisdom they have internalized."

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Normal Family Development (Narrative Family Therapy)

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The manner in which people see themselves is shaped by the dominant discourses of the culture. These stories are typically problem-saturated and influence the thinking and behavior of the individual as long as he/she remains unchallenged.

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Development of Behavioral Disorders (Narrative Family Therapy)

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the organization and the meaning attributed to one's experiences. As the story is authored, it serves as a basis for shaping further understanding and experience.

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Storying of experience (Narrative Family Therapy)

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refers to the non-judgmental acceptance of another's story as significant and true.

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Unconditional positive regard (Narrative Family Therapy)

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are the new stories that unfold as the client becomes aware that he/she is separate from his/her problem and that there are unique outcomes to the description of his/her story.

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Alternative stories (Narrative Family Therapy)

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a key tool. Through language, the old story is deconstructed, and the new story is authored.

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Language (Narrative Family Therapy)

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are the cultural messages that can either empower or subjugate various subgroups.These messages are internalized and form the basis for one's problem-saturated story.

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Dominant discourses (Narrative Family Therapy)

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viewed as an important concept at several levels. The therapist is aware of the subjugation of marginalized groups by the dominant discourses. It is important to also maintain awareness of the power differential within the therapeutic relationship.

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Power (Narrative Family Therapy)

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the understanding that individuals attribute to themselves. This perception tends to be dominated by problems to the exclusion of those times when the problem is not present.

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Problem-saturated story (Narrative Family Therapy)

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refers to the postmodern perspective that one perception of reality is no more valid than any other. This impacts the therapeutic context in that the therapist views the reality of the client as being just as valid as his/her own view of reality.

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Multiple realities (Narrative Family Therapy)

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are the successes or victories that have been obscured by the problem-saturated story. The therapist draws attention to these victories in order to aid in the reauthorizing of the person's story.

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Unique outcomes (Narrative Family Therapy)

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refers to the process of close attending to the client and his/her story. This is a joining technique.

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Tracking (Narrative Family Therapy)

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a technique utilized by several models of therapy in which the stigmatizing effects of a problem are decreased by providing evidence that others have similar difficulties.

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Normalizing (Narrative Family Therapy)

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is the dismantling of a problem through an analysis of its credibility.

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Deconstruction (Narrative Family Therapy)

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is the intentional use of language that conveys the inevitability of change.

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Presupposition of change (Narrative Family Therapy)

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of a problem removes it form the identity of an individual. This process portrays the problem as a living entity that is attempting to control the client. If a couple or family is the client system, patterns of interaction can be externalized.

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Externalization (Narrative Family Therapy)

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refers to the emphasis placed on the times when the problem is not occurring. There are three types of unique outcomes based on how they are placed in time: historical unique outcomes, current unique outcomes, and future unique outcomes

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Locating unique outcomes (Narrative Family Therapy)

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the process of giving new meaning to the experiences one has lived. The therapist serves as editor to encourage and to aid the client in rewriting his/her previous story.

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Restorying/reauthoring (Narrative Family Therapy)

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means inviting others to be involved in solidifying the new story. Others are asked to play a specific role that will enhance the chances that the client will view himself/herself in a different manner.

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Using the audience or witnessing (Narrative Family Therapy)

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Don Jackson and Jay Haley others: Paul Watzlawick and John Weakland These theorists are concerned with three aspects of communication as they relate to the family: Syntax-the style or manner in which information is transmitted and received Semantics-the clarity of communication transmission and reception Pragmatics-the behavioral effects of communication

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Communications Model

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The goals of treatment are individuation of members and improved relationships. An individual focus is assumed with the belief that as individuals grow they will develop greater family cohesion. Improved communication is the primary method used to promote healthy relationships by altering poorly functioning patterns of interaction. Theorists believe that these alterations will block symptomatic behavior, thus leading to its replacement by functional behavior.

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Goals of Treatment (Communications Family Model)

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The therapist has a directive approach and remains in control of the session. The therapist's behavior ranges from warm and collegial to more hierarchical and distant.

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Role of the Counselor (Communications Family Model)

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to maintain the homeostatic equilibrium of family systems

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Role of the Symptom (Communications Family Model)

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focuses on the present rather than the past. It has little interest in development. It is interested, however, in negative and positive feedback loops and their influence on the patterns of interaction. Negative feedback loops refer to the relationship balance achieved despite environmental influences. When the family begins to be unstable, a regulatory system "kicks in" to bring it back to comfortable level of homeostasis. Positive feedback alters the system to accommodate to changing circumstances. Flexible families are able to maintain stability but also modify their rules when the need arises.

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Normal family development (Communications Family Model)

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Symptomatic behavior occurs due to the rigidity of the system and its rules. Families become trapped in rigid homeostatic patterns of communication and are unable to adjust to change. Change is viewed as threatening, and the system resists it. As a family member attempts to change, the family attempts to restore homeostasis by labeling him/her as sick.

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Development of Behavioral Disorders (Communications Family Model)

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refers to communicating about communication. It involves several axioms: 1. People cannot not communicate. 2. All messages have a report and a command function. (The report deals with the content of the message. The command focuses on the definition of the relationship.) 3. Comand messages are the rules or the regular patterning of interactions. They function to stabilize relationships. 4. Family homeostasis is the behavioral balance within a family. It is preserved by the family rules. Thus, families are viewed as rule-governed systems. 5. Complementary relationships and symmetrical relationships are terms used to describe relationships between communicants. (complementary relationships are based on differences that fit together. symmetrical relationships are based on equality. Behavior of one individual mirrors that of the other.) 6. Communication is punctuated in various manners. Punctuation organizes behavioral events and reflects the bias of the observer.

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Metacommunications (Communications Family Model)

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is assumed, and the therapist focuses on patterns of interaction rather than underlying causality of symptoms.

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Circular causality (Communications Family Model)

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refers to straightforward directives by the therapist to aid in more functional patterns of communications. A few of the most common are as follows: Speak in first person singular, make personal statements (I-statemtents), and speak directly to, not about, each other.

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Teaching rules of clear communication (Communications Family Model)

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involves assisting the client in understanding his/her faulty rules and patterns.

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Analyzing and interpreting communication patterns (Communications Family Model)

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was viewed by some therapists as the only way to move the client system toward change. Reframing was redefining the communication of the family with an emphasis on a positive aspect of the relationship. Therapeutic paradox refers to assigning the completion of a task that is in direct conflict with the expressed desires of the client system. If the client follows the directive, the symptom is under his/her control. If he/she resists, the symptom has stopped.

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Manipulating interactions through strategic interventions (Communications Family Model)

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explicit in order to make them more difficult to follow.

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Make the dysfunctional rules (Communications Family Model)

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Nichols-the emotional barriers that protect and enhance the integrity of the individual , subsystems, and families. Minuchin-invisible barriers in the family that regulate the amount of contact between people

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Boundaries

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a theory of relationships in terms of the exchange of verbal and nonverbal messages.

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Communication theory

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the treatment of two or more related persons seen by separate therapists

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Concurrent therapy

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Satir-the treatment of two or more members together

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Conjoint therapy

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a therapeutic approach, devised by Don Jackson, in which the whole family is the therapeutic unit for treatment and the family members meet as a group with the therapist to change family interaction

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Conjoint family therapy

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the study of common processes in systems, especially analysis of the flow of information in closed systems. The cybernetic model is important to family theorists because it introduces the idea of circular causality by the way of feedback loop. Cybernetics focuses on interaction between the parts of the system and holistic patterns. First-order cybernetics assumes the system being observed is separate from the observer. Second-order cybernetics emphasizes the observer (therapist) as part of the system (also referred to as cybernetics or cybernetics). Example: A husband may be convinced that his wife's nagging (cause) makes him withdrawn (effect). She is equally likely to believe that this withdrawal causes her to nag.

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Cybernetics

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an extreme family type in which each family member is cut off emotionally from the other. There is little interaction, exchange of feelings, or sense of belongingness. There is relative absence of connections, and relationships between family members are weak or nonexistent. The enmeshed family, by contrast, is characterized by a tight interlocking of its members. Example: The father is involved with his work, the mother with church activities and various volunteer and charitable organizations. One child belongs to the Boy Scouts and is working on a Eagle Scout badge, while another child skips school and acts out in pre delinquent ways.

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Disengaged Family

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Minuchin-The rigid boundaries that result in relatively isolated and autonomous ways of relating. Extreme stress must be present for family members to ask for support.

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Disengagement

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MRI Group, especially associated with Bateson-A conflict created when a person receives contradictory messages on different levels of abstraction in an important relationship, and cannot leave or comment.

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Double-bind

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The interaction between two persons or objects

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Dyadic

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Minuchin-the loss of autonomy due to blurring of psychological boundaries.

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Enmeshment

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The person's parents and siblings

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Family of origin

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The blurring of psychological boundaries between self and others

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Fusion

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A balanced steady state of equilibrium

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Homeostasis

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guru of treating sexual dysfunction

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Helen Kaplin

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The idea that one event is the cause and another is the effect

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Linear causality

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MacGregor-an intensive, crisis-oriented form of family therapy; family members are treated in various subgroups by a team of therapists

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Multiple impact therapy

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Laing-a concept that many families distort their children's experience by denying or relabeling it.

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Mystification

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Parents and their children

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Nuclear Family

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Internalized images of oneself and others based on early parent-child interactions which determine a person's mode of relating to others

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Object Relations

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A child who has been allocated power by the parent to take care of younger siblings

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Parent child/Parentified child

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The use of high probability behavior (preferred activities) to reinforce low probability behavior (non preferred activities)

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Premack principle

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The distinction between a way of relating and what is being said

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Process/content

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Means nearness or proximity. The propinquity theory of mate selection "asserts that nearness or being in close proximity is a major factor in mate selection. This theory suggests we are apt to select a mate with whom we are in close association, such as at school or work or whom we meet through neighborhood, church, or recreational activities."

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Propinquity

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Boszormenyi-Nagy-A person who is the object of displaced conflict for the family

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Scapegoat

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Duhl-The placing of family members in postures that non-verbally state their role in the family

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Sculpting

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The process of separating from the mother in order to become autonomous

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Separation-individuation

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Nichols-A three-person system; the smallest stable unit of human relations

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Triangles

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The detouring of a conflict between two people by involving another person

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Triangulation

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refers to a formal decision-making process by which techniques are borrowed from a variety of models. The term integration refers to three approaches: eclecticism (draws from a variety of approaches) selective borrowing (techniques or concepts are taken from models to compliment one primary model.) Specially designed integrative models (theoretical models that draw on several approaches)

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Integrative model in Family therapy

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achieve increased comprehensiveness. The previously outlined models typically have a narrow focus on a certain area. This model usually draw understanding into a wider range of phenomena thus increasing the requisite variety of the therapist. Another goal is to expand the horizons of understanding without losing focus. Rather than create an entirely new model, theorists can utilize the previously organized concepts and enhance their usefulness.

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Goal of treatment (Integrative model in Family Therapy)

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Cross model boundaries, combine theoretical or technique elements from various models, focused on client and presenting problem, identify generic elements of treatment, reflect a broad view of the change process, appreciate diversity of thought in the field, pragmatic in nature, focus on one or more systems' elements (individual, couple, family), emphasize the self-of the-therpaist

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Key concepts (Integrative model in Family Therapy)

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paradoxical communication in families.

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Watzlawick, Beavin, and Jackson are best known for their work with

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