Submarines Essay Example
Submarines Essay Example

Submarines Essay Example

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  • Pages: 15 (3987 words)
  • Published: November 19, 2018
  • Type: Research Paper
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The American submarine force will celebrate its 100th year of service in the year 2000, showcasing the expertise of highly skilled individuals who operate advanced vessels. Throughout the past century, this force has made significant advancements in submersible warfare and introduced nuclear propulsion, resulting in the development of true submarines. These submarines played a critical role during the Cold War era by patrolling the deep ocean frontline and demonstrating their importance in global conflicts.

The involvement of the U.S. Navy with submarines began in 1888 when a design competition was organized by the Bureau of Construction and Repair (BUC&R). John Holland emerged as the winner and received a naval contract to construct an experimental Plunger submarine. By the early 1900s, influential naval figures such as Admiral George Dewey recognized that submarines posed a genuine

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threat to surface forces. Consequently, based on John Holland's design, the Navy acquired its first submarine in 1900 – Holland VI.

Surpassing Simon Lake's model from America, Holland VI was purchased by the Navy for $160,000 on April 11, 1900 and commissioned as USS Holland or SS-1 on October 12 of that same year. This submarine weighed 64 tons and featured an Otto-type gasoline engine for surface running along with electric motors for submerged operations. From 1909 onwards, American submarines began adopting diesel engines influenced by French methods due to concerns about gasoline volatility.The Electric Boat Company's F class submarines (SS-20 through 23) were constructed at Union Iron Works in San Francisco, incorporating designs from Holland and Lake, as well as diesel propulsion. During World War I, American submarines of various classes (E, H, K, L, M, N, O, and R) ranged in

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size from 287 to 510 tons. The fastest among them achieved a maximum surface speed of only 14 knots using diesel power. The U.S. Navy divided these submarines into two groups based on their wartime missions: some patrolled American coasts and harbors while others operated in European waters deemed threatening. Submarines from the K-, L-, O-, and E-class conducted offensive operations from locations like the Azores and Bantry Bay in Ireland to safeguard sea lanes near Europe and the British Isles. These submarines functioned as torpedo boats or destroyers in conjunction with larger naval fleets according to the Navy Department. In 1916, the Bureau of Steam Engineering collaborated with Electric Boat to develop the S-class submarine which weighed 800 tons and could reach speeds up to 15 knots - marking their initial foray into submarine design efforts. Additionally aided by Electric Boat's expertise, T-class (or AA class) submarines were also created by the Navy boasting speeds of up to 20 knots and displacing at 1107 tonsDuring World War I, the aim was to enhance American submarines to match fleet submarines in terms of speed. To accomplish this objective, they took inspiration from German U-boats which were known for their resilience, reliable engines, and long range capabilities. However, American submarines like the S-class had drawbacks such as problems with metallurgy and unreliable engines. In the interwar period, Rear Admirals Harry Yarnell and Samuel Robinson worked on mitigating these challenges using engineering practices from Europe and America. Simultaneously, submarine officers were grappling with how to strategically utilize submarines in the Navy. Influential officers including Captains Thomas Hart and Yates Stirling Jr., Admirals Henry Wiley and Frank Schofield,

along with Commander Thomas Withers discussed these matters while considering the German model but found it lacking clear guidance. While Germany's strategy of commercial warfare and independent patrol tactics greatly impacted Entente powers during the war, events like the sinking of RMS Lusitania revealed the immorality of unrestricted use of this type of warfare.The text highlights the importance for American submariners to navigate identity and mission questions in a politically charged environment. American industry faced limitations in producing submarines that were both durable and fast enough to keep up with battle fleets, making it impractical for regular operations with surface ships. Withers and other strategists examined independent patrols as an option, similar to Germany's experience in World War I. However, this posed ethical challenges for isolationist postwar America due to unrestricted U-boat warfare and civilian casualties. Despite official policy, American officers understood that submarine challenges would be determined by the brutality of war rather than peacetime politics or moral concerns. Submarines built in the 1930s reflected assertive and offensive strategic thinking, aiming at long-range independent patrols with sufficient resources. Through fleet exercises and war game scenarios, these submarines targeted enemy warships, convoy escort ships, and critical convoys. By 1940, the submarine force had established its strategic course and possessed the necessary vessels for its missionsAdmiral Thomas Hart's declaration of unrestricted submarine warfare against Japan in 1941 was not surprising, considering the preparedness of the submarine force. Throughout World War II, this force achieved significant victories using reliable boat classes like Gato, Balao, and Tench. Despite a cautious start due to Pearl Harbor and faulty torpedoes, they successfully sank 1,314 enemy ships totaling 5.3 million tons,

accounting for fifty-five percent of all enemy ship losses. Compared to other combatants, their casualty rate was remarkably low with only 375 officers and 3,131 enlisted men lost out of their deployed ranks of 16,000 submariners from 1939-1945. Operating from bases such as Pearl Harbor in Hawaii and locations in Australia like Freemantle and Brisbane, American submarines fearlessly engaged with the enemy despite rapid Japanese advancements after Pearl Harbor. These submarines showcased versatility and stealth by fulfilling various roles within the war effort. They experienced remarkable success against both Japanese merchant ships and warships when few allied vessels could penetrate Japanese-controlled areas. A notable example is USS Greenling led by Lieutenant Commander Henry C. Bruton during its third war patrol in late summer of 1942 where it managed to destroy 32,050 tons of enemy merchant shipping and damage a converted carrier weighing 22,000 tons.At the end of the war, Bruton ranked thirteenth among submarine force aces. American submariners continuously improved their attack methods and became formidable adversaries for any Japanese-flagged ship. In early 1943, USS Wahoo embarked on its third war patrol under the command of Lieutenant Commander Dudley W. Morton. Admiral James Fife proposed a new method of attack, which was executed by Morton and Lieutenant Richard OKane. OKane operated the periscope while Morton assessed the combat situation, enabling quick and effective decision-making. The result was that Wahoo successfully sank 31,890 tons of Japanese shipping. In recognition of his actions, Morton received the Navy Cross and Wahoo was honored with a Presidential Unit Citation.

Later on, as commanding officer of USS Tang, Richard OKane earned the Congressional Medal of Honor for destroying 31 ships. Submarines

also played a crucial role in rescuing carrier pilots and delivering troops for special missions against Japanese strongholds like Makin Island in August 1942. Both submarines completed their mission by surveying the island and demolishing vital facilities before picking up Marines and returning to Pearl Harbor.

During the final stages of the war, American submarines faced challenges in locating targets due to the scarcity of remaining Japanese ships.Nonetheless, determined submarine commanders fearlessly entered Japanese harbors and hiding spots to locate anchored warships and supply vessels. The introduction of newly developed FM sonar sets allowed American submarines to navigate through heavily guarded Japanese waters, eliminating any chance for the enemy to hide. The success achieved by the American submarines played a vital role in determining the outcome of the war. Following World War II, underwater warfare underwent a significant transformation during the Cold War era, with the United States Navy leading the way. Building upon advanced submarine designs pioneered by Germans during the war, the Navy sought to create submarines capable of diving deeper, enduring longer durations underwater, and achieving higher speeds. Reports from naval and civilian advisors in 1949 and 1950 raised concerns about postwar Soviets potentially posing a major naval threat with their advanced U-boat technology derived from German designs. During that time, no warship possessed enough capabilities to detect and track submarines like Germany's Type 21 U-boats which could sustain a speed of 17 knots while submerged for at least thirty minutes. Immediately after World War II, efforts were made by the submarine force to conduct experiments on silencing techniques, sonic detection systems, and deeper diving capabilities. These experiments eventually led to advancements such

as Guppy conversions that enhanced underwater speed and hydrodynamic efficiency.
The Tang class submarines were a significant innovation in postwar construction as they provided increased underwater speed and endurance. In 1955, USS Nautilus achieved a groundbreaking milestone by introducing its pressurized water nuclear plant, setting an unmatched standard for submarines. The only limitation on the submerged endurance of the Nautilus was the crew's periodic need to resurface. This submarine was primarily designed for operating below the surface. The Seawolf and Skate class submarines demonstrated how effective submarines could be in different environments following the Nautilus, surpassing what John Holland could have envisioned due to technological limitations during his time. Nuclear submarines solved technical challenges and greatly advanced underwater capabilities. After 1945, research at the David Taylor Model Basin focused on achieving greater submerged speed, which aligned with Admiral Hyman Rickover's successful nuclear propulsion project on the Nautilus. Valuable insights into optimal hull form for high-speed submarines were gained from this research. Exceptional submerged speed was achieved by submariners using the conventionally-powered experimental Albacore. The combination of nuclear propulsion endurance in SSN USS Skipjack and other advancements led to a new paradigm that every American submarine has followed since 1958, playing a critical role during the Cold War.During the Cold War era, the U.S. Submarine Force effectively dealt with Soviet submarine threats in the north Atlantic and Northwest Pacific regions. This was achieved through surveillance and deterrence by attack submarines. The range of these submarines was extended by combining Nautilus and Albacore. In the late 1950s, experiments were conducted to launch air breathing missiles from submarines. However, it was concluded that nuclear submarines based on the Skipjack

model were better suited for launching ballistic missiles due to their mobility, stealth, and endurance.

Since 1960, various generations of missile submarines (SSBNs) have served as the ultimate nuclear deterrent starting with Polaris A-1. Unlike land-based missiles that are easily targeted, SSBNs constantly move and hide deep in the ocean. They possess virtually unlimited endurance and can be directed by the President to reach almost any target. The current Ohio class SSBNs are highly effective components of American strategic nuclear defense that offer great survivability.

From the 1970s onwards, ballistic missile submarines also provided a stealthy means for engaging both land and sea targets for the Navy's submarine force. This new class of submarines introduced advancements in noise reduction, ease of maintenance, and overall performance compared to previous designs. Additionally, they included more precise and longer-range missile capabilities which eliminated the need for overseas homeporting.

Overall, significant changes have occurred within the U.S. Submarine Force since the Cold War era took place.
The shift in submarine operations has moved from deterring global warfare to supporting national interests in regional crises and conflicts. This change has led to a focus on using modern submarines' multi-mission capabilities instead of primarily targeting nuclear submarines through Anti-Submarine Warfare (ASW). The current weapon loadouts now include Tomahawk Land-Attack missiles or other armaments alongside MK 48 torpedoes. These operational transformations have impacted all aspects of U.S. submarine operations, including peacetime presence and strategic deterrence. These transitions have been driven by changes in the world order and the evolving nature of the U.S. Navy as well.

The world order has shifted from a bi-polar superpower alignment to a collection of diverse interests, resulting in decreased possibilities for

global conflict but an increased likelihood of regional conflicts arising. Consequently, the composition and operational stance of the U.S. Navy have also changed, moving away from solely focusing on blue water operations towards littoral operations instead. This paradigm shift has brought about various alterations in the roles that U.S submarines play; previously centered around ASW, they now possess a more multi-mission orientation. Intelligence gathering has transitioned from strategic to tactical reconnaissance, and the previously silent Silent Service now covertly exchanges information with other U.S. forces.
The submarine force is adapting to work synergistically with other Navy and Joint communities for mutual mission success. During peaceful times, the United States may potentially face regional crises that could escalate into armed conflicts. Over the past 50 years, the U.S. has been involved in various regional conflicts and crises, including Operation Sharp Edge in Liberia (which involved evacuating Americans and foreign nationals), Operation Desert Storm (aimed at liberating Kuwait and neutralizing Iraq's offensive capabilities), and Operation Eastern Exit (focused on rescuing Americans from revolution in Somalia).

To demonstrate interest or maintain secrecy until necessary, submarines are deployed to forward areas due to their long endurance and high transit speeds. Once positioned, attack submarines have two choices: they can either conduct over 200 port visits to 50 cities worldwide in 1991 for high visibility or opt for undetected operations. This demonstrates the operational flexibility and versatile firepower of modern attack submarines, which are capable of transporting special operations forces, conducting surveillance, gathering valuable intelligence through electronic surveillance, operating independently or collaborating with other submarines, carrier battle groups, or surface task forces.

Attack submarines have proven incredibly valuable for surveillance, intelligence gathering, and

warning purposes over the past 45 years.Submarines possess stealth capabilities that enable them to enter undetected areas, a feature not shared by satellites or aircraft due to limitations imposed by factors such as weather conditions, cloud cover, and target locations. The ability of satellites and aircraft to observe underwater activity is severely constrained, making sustained surveillance challenging for them. Throughout the Cold War period, submarines played a vital role in various forms of surveillance and intelligence collection. Their importance persists in addressing ongoing regional crises and conflicts that serve the interests of the United States and its allies. In forthcoming times, submarines may integrate Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUV) or drones into their operations for intelligence gathering purposes or continuous surveillance in critical regions. These vehicles would be deployed from submarines to safely transport sensors into areas where it might be unfeasible for the submarine itself to venture. Upon accomplishing their missions, AUVs have the option of either returning to the submarine or transmitting data through underwater or satellite channels. Accurate information acquisition holds significant value for American political and military leaders as it enables informed decision-making and planning processes. Winston Churchill emphasized this importance of accurate situational comprehension. Submarines play a substantial role in obtaining such understanding, particularly within special operations where they have long served as transportation means for commandos, reconnaissance teams, and agents embarking on high-risk missions.SEAL teams are frequently involved in special operations conducted by U.S. submarines, which offer the most discreet means of delivery. These highly skilled forces can be inserted using fixed-wing aircraft, helicopters, parachutes, or surface craft. Once they reach their objective area, SEALs engage in a range of

clandestine missions including combat search-and-rescue operations, reconnaissance, sabotage, diversionary attacks, monitoring enemy movements or communications. Nuclear-powered submarines are particularly well-suited for these operations due to their speed,endurance,and stealth capabilities.

U.S.nuclear-powered submarines have repeatedly demonstrated their effectiveness in conducting special operations involving multiple swimmers. During exercises,personnel from various branches of the military use submarines to retrieve individuals who parachute or rappel into the sea. These individuals are then recruited for missions involving combat swimmer attacks, surveillance, beach infiltration/exfiltration and more.

While any U.S.submarine can transport SEALs,the transportation of swimmers and their equipment is better facilitated by specific modified submarines.These modifications involve the addition of Dry Deck Shelters (DDSs) to accommodate Swimmer Delivery Vehicles (SDVs), while still retaining full range of weapons and sensors for attack operations. The submarines also possess modified air systems that allow for the carrying of DDSs. The DDS can be used to transport and launch an SDV or assist combat swimmers in exiting the submarine. Installing a DDS takes about 12 hours and it can be transported by air, providing flexibility to special operations. While each STURGEON class unit (SSN 637) can carry one chamber, two former ballistic missile submarines have the capability to hold two shelters each. The DDS is located at the back of the submarine's sail structure and is connected to the aft hatch, enabling smooth passage between the submarine and the DDS when submerged near the objective area. SEALs have the choice to leave with the submarine from the DDS, bringing their equipment and rubber rafts, or use an SDV to travel underwater for several miles to reach their objective area. The number of SEALs carried on a submarine for

a special operation varies depending on factors such as mission, duration, target, and other considerations. Typically, one or more SEAL platoons consisting of two officers and 14 enlisted men are embarked upon, with additional SEALs available for mission planning and equipment handling within the submarine.Former SSBNs that were used alongside SEALs have specific berthing spaces to accommodate around 50 seals. U.S. attack submarines are equipped with Tomahawk Land-Attack Missiles (TLAM), which provide accurate long-range strikes against shore targets using conventional warheads. This combination of a stealthy attack submarine and precise cruise missiles offers numerous advantages for national decision-makers. The TLAM has proven to be highly effective since its initial use in combat during the 1991 Gulf War, exceeding predicted accuracy when clear target imagery was available, according to the official Department of Defense report Conduct of the Persian Gulf War (1992). On January 16, 1991, the war commenced with Tomahawk cruise missiles launched from U.S. Navy surface ships in both the Red Sea and Persian Gulf. Throughout the Gulf War, Baghdad, Iraq's heavily fortified capital city, was targeted with a total of 288 TLAMs launched coinciding with nighttime operations by U.S. Air Force f-117 Stealth attack planes over Baghdad. Due to strong anti-aircraft defenses in the city, TLAMs were exclusively used during daylight hours by the U.S., out of which twelve were fired from submarines - eight by USS LOUISVILLE (SSN 724) in the Red Sea and four by USS PITTSBURGH (SSN 720) in the eastern Mediterranean.The submarine-launched missile operation showcased the vital role submarines play as part of a unified strike force. While at sea, the submarines received target information and strike data, demonstrating

their integration into the overall operation. Instead of replacing traditional carrier attack aircraft in future scenarios, submarines and surface ships are expected to take the lead in attacks using TLAM strikes. These strikes would aim to neutralize early warning systems, air-defense infrastructure, and communication facilities to reduce threats against manned aircraft. One advantage that submarines offer is their ability to reach attack positions without directly provoking adversaries. Within Navy battle group operations, attack submarines are integral. Typically, each battle group is assigned two attack submarines that undergo pre-deployment training and participate in exercises. Control over the submarines can be transferred between different commanders such as amphibious group commanders, battle group commanders, destroyer squadron commanders, or even NATO commanders during actual operations with the battle group. U.S. commanders also have tactical control over NATO submarines. Submarines play a crucial role in sea denial missions where they work towards preventing enemy surface ships and other submarines from utilizing the sea.Attack submarines have the capability to carry out sea denial missions in different scenarios. These include engaging in large-scale warfare against major maritime powers and blockades of enemy ports. Such missions can involve attacking enemy surface ships or submarines with the aim of destroying the opposing naval fleet or merchant shipping as a whole, or they may focus on specific objectives.

The actions of U.S. submarines during World War II exemplified an attrition campaign, where American undersea vessels successfully sank over half of Japan's merchant vessels and a significant number of warships. In the 1982 Falklands War, the sinking of the Argentine cruiser GENERAL BELGRANO by the British nuclear-powered submarine CONQUEROR led to Argentina's remaining surface fleet retreating to

port, including their aircraft carrier. This incident demonstrated the threat posed by British nuclear-powered submarines and deterred further involvement from Argentine surface warships throughout the conflict.

To attack enemy surface ships or submarines, U.S. submarines primarily rely on the MK 48 torpedo, specifically utilizing its improved ADCAP variant. This torpedo is heavy-weighted with a long range and possesses a large warhead. It is equipped with advanced guidance capabilities that effectively target both surface ships and submarines, even those that are high-speed and maneuvering in nature.

In addition to torpedoes, attack submarines are also equipped with anti-ship missiles that have a longer reach compared to torpedoes.The TSAM (Tomahawk Anti-Ship Missile) has a range of over 250 nautical miles and can be launched while the submarine is still submerged. Once launched, the missile emerges from the water and ignites its jet engine to propel itself towards its intended target. This self-guided missile serves as a fire-and-forget weapon and can replace torpedoes by being launched through torpedo tubes. Some submarines in the LOS ANGELES (SSN 688) class possess twelve vertical tubes that enable them to launch both TLAMs (Tomahawk Land Attack Missiles) and TASMs (Tomahawk Anti-Ship Missiles). Submarines also carry mines to prevent enemy surface ships or submarines from accessing specific sea areas. CAPTOR (enCAPsulated TORpedo) mines are utilized for targeting submarines in deep water regions. SLMMs (Submarine-Launched Mobile Mines), similar to torpedoes, travel a short distance after being released by the submarine before descending to the ocean floor. They activate their mine sensors at predetermined locations, making them ideal for blockading harbors or narrow sea passages. Initially deployed via torpedo tubes, attack submarines have significantly improved their effectiveness with

the advent of Tomahawk cruise missiles. The most recent generation of Los Angeles class SSNs now incorporate bow-mounted vertical launch systems that allow for efficient missile firing, which has proven highly advantageous in modern littoral warfare.
During Desert Storm, the submarine-launched Tomahawks showcased their remarkable effectiveness, marking the first utilization of this new capability in combat for submarine forces. This was particularly evident in Mediterranean submarine operations during the Persian Gulf conflict. American submarines possess characteristics such as stealth and quietness, long endurance, diverse weapon arrays, and effective communication abilities with the fleet over long distances. They conduct both independent tactical and strategic patrols as well as support operations for carrier battle groups. The integration of submarines with air and surface forces indicates that future naval warfare will require a flexible mix of assets to meet evolving defense demands. The innovative submarine force will aid in maintaining the adaptability necessary for controlling future battlespaces.

Before the end of the Cold War and the collapse of the Soviet Union in late 1991, approximately 45% (around 5,400) of America's nearly 12,000 nuclear warheads were held by its U.S. Navy-operated ballistic missile submarines, which totaled to 34.The U.S Triad system includes land-based intercontinental ballistic missiles (20% warheads) and land-based bombers (35% warheads). In April 1992, General Colin Powell praised the Navy's SSBN force at a ceremony for their contributions in preventing conflicts and working towards peace. He referred to them as heroes of the Cold War eraSince the fall of the Berlin Wall, strategic deterrence remains essential in U.S. defense strategy. As land-based bombers and intercontinental missiles are being reduced, future U.S strategic defense will heavily rely on nuclear-powered submarines.

Within the Triad system, only the SSBN force will deploy missiles with MIRVs (Multiple Independently Targetable Reentry Vehicles). This submarine component is expected to consist of 18 modern OHIO class SSBNs capable of carrying up to eight warheads each across its fleet of 24 TRIDENT missiles. The United States is reviewing SSBN warheads to reduce strategic weapons. They plan to rely on submarines for future nuclear deterrence, giving them a majority share in strategic weapons capability.

In World War I, the US had a fleet of twenty-four diesel powered submarines. Although these submarines had limited involvement and were not successful in enemy encounters, Germany's U-boats showed the importance of submarines in future conflicts after the war ended. The Navy continued their submarine operations even after WWI finished.

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