Industrial Revolution, term which gained currency Essay Example
Industrial Revolution, term which gained currency Essay Example

Industrial Revolution, term which gained currency Essay Example

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  • Published: March 31, 2019
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From 1750 to 1850, significant changes in the manufacturing sector have been commonly referred to as the "Industrial Revolution". This term emerged in Great Britain and had a profound impact on both the economy and society. Initially, these changes mainly affected production by altering what was produced, how it was made, and where it took place.

Labour was shifted from producing primary products to manufacturing goods and services. The production of manufactured goods greatly increased, and there was a significant improvement in technical efficiency. This boost in productivity was largely due to the systematic application of scientific and practical knowledge in the manufacturing process. When large concentrations of businesses were situated in specific areas, efficiency was further enhanced. As a result, the Industrial Revolution saw urbanization as people migrated from rural to urban areas.

The structure of work experienced significant transformations as fam

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ily or manor-based production was substituted with firms or public enterprises. The nature of work became more focused on specific and repetitive tasks. Specialized equipment played a vital role in industrial production to improve effectiveness. By utilizing tools and machinery, workers were able to increase the volume of goods manufactured, while specialization was further encouraged through dedication to particular tasks or devices.

Compared to the mid-18th century, the industrial landscape of mid-19th-century Britain underwent significant changes. There was a noticeable shift in the British economy during this time as it rapidly transitioned from predominantly agricultural and rural occupations to urban-based industries and services. This transformation was accompanied by social and political turmoil such as riots, machine-breaking, and political movements focused on improving working conditions and labor laws, along with the introduction of Poor Law legislation. The

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agricultural sector had already experienced its own revolution, enabling the economy to support a growing urban workforce. Additionally, the expanding population further increased the demand for goods and services within the country.

Marketing techniques were created to appeal primarily to the wealthy, middle, and upper classes. Trade became closely associated with a growing laissez-faire ideology that gradually permeated British institutions. These significant changes were concentrated in specific sectors and regions of Britain. Additionally, the organization of manufacturing methods cannot be disconnected from the transformations occurring within Britain's developing commercial infrastructure, marketing and finance practices, the rise of consumerism, existing handicraft skills, and the expansion of international trade. All of these factors and more played a significant and interconnected role in bringing about the Industrial Revolution.

Foundations for the Revolution: Capital, Credit, and Empire
The Industrial Revolution was driven by the previous accumulation of capital.

Compared to other European countries, Britain witnessed a more rapid release of capital and labor from the land. This was made possible by the efficient agriculture in Britain and the simultaneous growth of its industrial workforce, leading to swift population growth and urbanization. The transformative changes occurring in the country astounded both British and European observers.

During the Industrial Revolution, capital formation and the production of goods for export increased. The British Empire, along with its domestic institutions, played a crucial role in expanding foreign markets for British goods. These markets were often acquired through trade-driven wars defended by the British military. For example, the Carnatic Wars in India saw the British East India Company battling against their French competitor to establish commercial dominance. Similarly, the War of Jenkins' Ear began when British traders entered the

Spanish Empire in 1739. Laws like the Navigation Acts during the 17th and 18th centuries were influenced by mercantilism and advocated using military power to protect and promote national economic interests.

In order to fund these wars, the government obtained loans that were backed by the State's ability to generate income through taxation.

The main source of war revenue during this period was primarily obtained from the London capital market. This created a close alliance between the government, the Bank of England, and notable financiers in London. By the late 18th century, around 40-50% of all tax revenue came from interest payments on the British national debt.

A failed attempt known as the South Sea Bubble aimed to involve merchants in bearing this debt in exchange for trading privileges. However, it revealed how Britain's military expenses had contributed to establishing a prosperous capital market willing to invest in trade and speculative ventures.

The collection of tax income from domestically produced goods was mostly handled by the Excise Department. On the other hand, taxing imports posed challenges for the Customs Department and only yielded a small portion of funds required to support Britain's extensive naval needs.

As a result, indirect taxation played a crucial role in propelling Britain to become a global mercantile leader during the 18th century. This was primarily achieved through its contribution to funding wars.

In addition to establishing and protecting new markets for British goods, military investment stimulated demands for military products, resulting in noteworthy engineering advancements. For instance, the exigencies of the War of the Austrian Succession spurred pioneering enhancements in coke-smelting techniques, while the requirements of the Seven Years' War (particularly for a considerable quantity of

uniforms) coincided with the implementation of the fly shuttle in looms.

The growth in export demand for British goods was the main outcome of war. This led to a monopoly on carrying and re-export trades, which facilitated communication with distant and European markets, as well as fostering shipping and shipbuilding. Additionally, wars absorbed a large portion of the unskilled and possibly unemployed workforce.


The government's focus on military ventures hindered investment in the country's infrastructure. Instead, it was British businessmen and investors who financed the construction of turnpike roads, canals, and ports. Additionally, the government neglected investment in education, science, and technology, except for those related to the maritime and military sectors. These political policies ultimately supported private enterprise. Naval power protected the British Isles from invasion and provided security for capitalists to invest in the economy's long-term future.

British currency during the 18th century was in a poor state, with fixed unit prices and parities that encouraged exporting gold and silver bullion as well as melting down coins. As a result, a network of financial intermediaries emerged to provide paper substitutes (such as banknotes, bills of exchange, book credit, and cheques) in place of coins. This private commercial enterprise supported the necessary developments for supplying the country's money, enabling the nation to successfully navigate eight wars and an Industrial Revolution.

Industry
British manufacturing during the Industrial Revolution greatly benefited from new technology. In 1707, Thomas Newcomen patented a steam-pumping engine. Then, in 1769, James Watt made significant improvements to the design and Richard Trevithick was the first to use it to power a vehicle in 1801. John Kay invented the flying shuttle for weavers in 1733, followed

closely by James Hargreaves who developed the spinning jenny in 1764. Richard Arkwright patented his spinning machine in 1769 and combined it with systematic industrial organization techniques in his factories. In 1786, Edmund Cartwright patented the first power loom. Meanwhile, Abraham Darby and his descendants at Coalbrookdale in Shropshire exemplified British mastery of cast-iron manufacturing, culminating in the construction of the world's first major cast-iron structure at Ironbridge from 1777-1779. The emphasis on trade in Britain directed inventors towards textile production and iron and steel manufacturing, drawing on a scientific tradition represented by the establishment of the Royal Society in 1660. These ideas thrived in Britain while they may have faded away in other countries.

The development of a credit society greatly supported the growth of industry. However, the accumulation of fixed capital during the Industrial Revolution was hindered. This was partially due to many manufacturers renting their premises and the availability of inexpensive machinery. Additional machines and steam engines were often leased, and it was not uncommon for multiple businesses to share manufacturing space and sources of power.


The harsh and competitive market required many customary working practices to undergo organizational changes. The factory system emerged from proto-industrialization, which had already organized and disciplined a part of the labour force. Manuals on factory organization and management, such as James Montgomery's work on cotton-spinning and Charles Babbage's work on machinery and manufactures, were published during the early 19th century. Journalists played a significant role in increasing the visibility of factories in the public mind. However, traditional handicraft forms of manufacture, often in competition with factories, were more common in the contemporary British industrial landscape. This

trend continued into the 19th century. Cotton manufacturers in the 18th and 19th centuries often combined steam-powered spinning in factories with employing handloom weavers on a large scale. This approach mitigated financial risk due to the unreliability of early machinery, as well as the affordability of female and child labour. As a result, the traditional sector often supported modern manufacturing.

Despite the inevitability of the machine age, it became a tangible reality in the labor market in the latter half of the 18th century. In Newcastle upon Tyne, skilled coal-heavers demanded higher pay in the 1750s and 1760s, which led to the development of a new coal-unloading machine. This period also saw industrialists starting to consider the relationship between wages and productivity, while natural philosophers contemplated labor as a power source. As a result, certain industries began viewing human labor as a rival power source compared to alternatives such as horses and more efficient machines.

Numerous changes also occurred in traditional industries, impacting various sectors such as brewing, brick-making, malting, sugar-making, and soap-boiling due to new industrial uses for coal. Furthermore, transformations in materials brought changes to luxury industries like hat-making and jewellery production. The textile industries also experienced product changes that significantly decreased the time needed for finishing certain products. The late 18th century witnessed the success of the calico-printing industry, which can be attributed to the reorganization and strict management of labor. Starting from 1759, the entrepreneurial brilliance of Josiah Wedgwood transformed the Staffordshire Potteries. Wedgwood's talents extended beyond technical innovation as he excelled in early marketing and manipulating contemporary Neo-Classical taste. It is also worth mentioning the contributions of Spode and Minton later

on.

When examining industrial change, it is important to consider regional differences and variations in development patterns across different products. Therefore, a comprehensive view cannot be universally applied to all of Britain.

Some areas experienced growth while others saw little to no progress. For instance, the West Riding district of Yorkshire surpassed the south-west and East Anglia regions in wool textiles production. Cotton textiles were dominated by South Lancashire, while the Midlands became known for their successful manufacturing of small metalwares and hardwares. Worcester porcelain was likely influenced by Oriental wares coming into the country through Bristol, and they employed transfer-printing techniques to increase efficiency. The location of coalfields became increasingly influential in the development of iron-processing, steel manufacturing, and later shipbuilding.

Prior to the establishment of a national transport and communications system, local districts played a pivotal role in developing their own transportation, commercial, and credit networks. The improvements in transportation, such as better turnpike roads and canals, were primarily concentrated in specific regions. Moreover, district banks and commercial relationships were established, with capital rarely venturing beyond its original area. The growth of provincial towns led to the emergence of local interest groups that frequently clashed with powerful economic factions in London. It should be noted that the economy of London and the southeast differed from industrializing areas in the north. Despite regional capital markets, London played a crucial part in supporting and expanding credit for both domestic and international trade.

Some historians argue that Britain's industrialization was primarily driven by its access to fresh water sources, mineral ores, and abundant coal supplies. However, it is important to note that many proto-industrial areas were already well-established

before coal became a major factor in development or a source of energy. The defining factors of early industrial locations were actually social and institutional factors specific to each region. For instance, areas with established trade structures and labor organizations often resisted innovation and mechanization. In contrast, counties like Yorkshire embraced innovations more readily than rival wool districts such as the West Country. The West Riding, for example, had a domestic system characterized by a lack of specialization, making it more open to technological and organizational changes. Additionally, local merchants in this area carefully monitored European tastes and fashions and used cash or short-term bills of exchange, enabling manufacturers to quickly acquire funds. Regions like Lancashire and the Midlands also experienced similar changes as seen in the West Riding.There has been a diverse economy developing in the coal regions of the northeast since the 16th century.However other areas such as Weald potentially Cumbria saw manufacturing decline during this time.

The Industrial Revolution brought about significant societal changes, including rapid population growth, urbanization, and an increase in the wage-earning population. The bourgeoisie, who derived their income from industry, began to rival the traditional landed aristocracy in terms of wealth. These market conditions started shaping the social structure, leading to social unrest and protests. Dissatisfaction with the changing moral economy was evident through riots over agricultural enclosure and grain supplies as well as gangs of machine-breakers.

These societal transformations also resulted in a heightened sensitivity to crime and an increase in recorded crime rates. The poor and low-paid were perceived as a threat to social stability. The traditional method of punishment through public hangings lost its effectiveness during this

time period.

As a response, new approaches for dealing with criminals emerged, such as constructing prisons. Additionally, regional police forces were established during the early 19th century.

Crime became closely associated with industrialization according to many contemporaries.

Workplaces were frequently constructed to accommodate a larger workforce and enhance production efficiency. This necessitated stricter regulation and centralization of labor. The restructuring of traditional skills and work patterns was often necessary to achieve these goals. The implementation of a centralized factory system was typically met with resistance in all regions, as it challenged established apprenticeship programs and production regulations. Additionally, these changes had consequences for production owners, as they facilitated the formation of a collective alliance among workers with shared interests. Consequently, this led to the establishment of organized and more impactful protests against employers.

However, the reorganization of skills and the labour process did not adhere to a predetermined re-skilling path. Many sectors of industry remained fragmented, with sweatshops, workshops, and putting-out systems coexisting alongside centralization and the emerging factory system. To fully comprehend the Industrial Revolution, one must acknowledge the various diverse and innovative alternatives to the factory system. Nevertheless, by the mid-19th century, industrial management had become significantly more involved in work organization.

Despite not dominating production, the factory system was noticeable in specific regions and deeply ingrained in 19th-century culture. Workers across various industries, whether in factories, workshops, or cottage industries, experienced a loss of control over their work's pace and nature. They increasingly had to comply with the demands of larger industrialists or merchants for credit or labor. Unemployment offered no security, leaving social unrest as the only available form of protest. Protest movements became associated with

certain regions, such as factory reform in Yorkshire and Poor Law reform in Lancashire.

The most exploited members of the working population in industries like woollen and cotton were women and children. These industries favored employing them because their labor was plentiful and therefore inexpensive. Consequently, this vulnerable group frequently served as the testing ground for new work practices and machines specifically designed for children, such as the original spinning jenny intended for children aged 9 to 12. Women's work was deemed less skilled and lower in status due partly to the belief that women were physically and mentally inferior to men. As a result, the reliance on this cheap labor source often impeded the substitution of capital for labor.

Population
In 1700, nearly half of Britain's population was involved in non-agricultural occupations. The nation had abundant agricultural resources to support its expanding population and a surplus of skilled laborers who were crucial for constructing an urbanized and industrial society.

The land ownership system in Britain consisted of extensive estates, consolidated farms, and enclosed areas. This system was vital in facilitating the agricultural sector's adjustment to meet the rising demands of a growing population. Additionally, it provided resources and labor for the rapid expansion of urban areas. Consequently, by the 1840s, Britain had surpassed all other European countries in terms of its urban population.

The population growth during the Industrial Revolution was influenced by various factors, including region, occupation, and social rank. Fertility and migration patterns varied in textile and mining districts. Urban areas experienced higher mortality rates among low-paid and unemployed individuals, resulting in an increase of laborers moving from rural areas due to cities having higher death rates

than birth rates. As a result, the high urban death rate discouraged the increasing rural birth rate.

In addition, significant increases in population frequently occurred after significant events such as wars, famines, or disease outbreaks. Undoubtedly, the population was greatly influenced by an enhanced diet, as well as advancements in medicine.

Trade
Demand for goods within the domestic economy was mainly limited to
those with high incomes. The majority of the population probably could not afford to consume trendy products.
However, the growth of the working class did increase the demand for certain essential products, such as clothes, candles, beer, butter, and crockery.
It was the wealthier members of the growing middle class who created the market for mass manufacturers.
Ironically, consumerism among the upper and middle class may have harmed the production of domestic goods in the pursuit of unique and stylish items.

Britain relied heavily on external trade due to its exportation of domestically manufactured goods such as textiles, iron, and metalwares. These products were capable of being produced in large quantities. The Industrial Revolution led to a substantial growth in imports and exports, with re-exports experiencing a ninefold increase. However, European protectionism affected Britain's primary market, particularly its colonies in the West Indies and North America.

Britain's coastal and internal waterways in the 18th century were ideal for exploiting the expanding Atlantic economy. However, the situation changed in the 1780s when Britain lost North America. Historically, during economic recessions, Britain used its military power to expand its trading conquests. Slaves were a crucial commodity in British trade during this time, driving the dynamic growth of the Atlantic economy and establishing extensive trade routes for other goods.

In the 18th century,

Africa became the second-largest recipient of British iron, following the United States. By the 1790s, around a quarter of British cotton was sourced from Africa. However, trade dynamics shifted in the 1830s as India took over Africa's position and became Britain's main trading hub due to a decrease in West Indies trade.


With the expansion overseas, more advanced methods of commercial and financial organization emerged. This included joint-stock insurance companies and private banks. Additionally, investments were made in internal transportation systems such as canals and roads, dockyards, and mining industries.

By the late 18th century, Britain held naval dominance, aided by a strong internal financial system. The nature of British industrialization was heavily influenced by international trade. The cotton trade, as well as the woollen and iron industries, relied on access to global markets. Additionally, the development of agriculture would have been significantly slower without international trade.

Changing Views of the Industrial Revolution
Over the past three decades the idea of an Industrial Revolution has
undergone serious revision. Indeed, the very notion of a revolution has
become a highly contested issue. Broadly, there are two competing
perspectives. Those who maintain there were momentous changes point to
developments in technology, the organization of work, and economic growth.

According to them, these factors led to a quick rise in population, urbanization, the shift of workers from agriculture to manufacturing industry, the creation of social classes, and the rearrangement of the family structure.

However, recent economic historians challenge this account. They argue, primarily through analyzing contemporary statistics, that Great Britain did not experience a dramatic surge in economic expansion. Instead, it only had slight growth.

This revised account argues that the supposed revolutionary advancements linked to this

era were actually evolutionary changes that held onto traditional economic and social patterns.

Evidence cited includes slow growth, limited saving and investment, static standards of living, a predominance of liquid capital as opposed to fixed assets, and limited personal consumption. Consequently, the idea of an Industrial Revolution is put in doubt and replaced by a continuity thesis, which emphasizes developments stemming from an earlier period. The British economy is described, instead, by traditional sectors and familiar production methods.

Critics argue that the Industrial Revolution should not be seen as synonymous with macroeconomic growth. They believe that there were significant social and institutional changes in economic organization, as well as advancements in products and processes. Technological change encompasses improvements in skills, tools, machinery, and capital-intensive plant and equipment.

In addition, certain sectors of the economy that appeared to have slow growth were actually transitioning towards a factory system. Examples of these transitioning industries include wool production and chemical industries like soap and candle-making.

It is important to note that not all change resulted in economic growth, and rapid growth did not always mean revolutionary changes in production methods. Furthermore, doubts have been raised about the accuracy of statistical data used to support the gradualist approach, raising concerns about the reliability of its conclusions.

Assessment
The Industrial Revolution is now perceived as more complex than previously thought in British history. Previous explanations of abrupt and rapid economic growth, or a significant transfer of funds from agriculture to industry, are no longer deemed accurate. Additionally, it remains uncertain if there was a complete migration of agricultural workers to factories or a definitive dominance of machines and factories. Instead, there existed both traditional and

innovative production methods that either competed with each other or collaborated.

Nevertheless, the changes during this period were characterized by social turmoil, including protest movements and rioting, along with rapid population growth sustained by agricultural capacity and increasing urbanization. The development of a fiscal-military state throughout the 18th century was particularly significant. This resulted in the creation of new trading routes and an increased demand for British-made goods, while also establishing a strong and advanced credit network. In conclusion, the Industrial Revolution was centered on specific industries and driven by foreign trade.

During the 1960s, there was a trend to view the British Industrial Revolution as a blueprint for other countries aspiring to industrialize. However, it is now widely accepted that the countries that caught up with Britain displayed more differences and variations rather than similarities. The initial Industrial Revolution was one-of-a-kind, and economists no longer consider it a mandatory phase for countries in the proto-industrialization process.

By the time of the Great Exhibition of 1851, Europe and North America were focused on British industrialization. The Crystal Palace showcased British industry to the world. However, Victorian Britain was already experiencing a decline in industrial power. Other countries attending the exhibition displayed products that revealed Britain's diminishing lead. Throughout the latter half of the 19th century, German, French, and North American industrialization rapidly surpassed Britain's.1

1"Industrial Revolution," Microsoft Encarta 97 Encyclopedia. 1993-1996 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.

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