The occupants of Bignor and Lullingstone Villa Essay Example

in size of the villa is intriguing to witness. The growth is apparent through the inclusion of 3, 4, and 5 unit rooms. This expansion may be attributed to the consolidation of the farm with another local farm or perhaps due to new marriages within the family. It seems that there were numerous inhabitants in the villa, indicating that a particular family may have possessed higher status or wealth and exerted dominance over others residing in the house. As a result, additional resources might have been allocated towards the advancement of the villa.

It is believed that the villa was once home to between 60-100 people and possibly had between 100-150 slaves living in mud huts nearby. This suggests that the occupants of Bignor were wealthy and of high status. Some suggest that there may have been an upper floor added to the villa around the 4th century, indicating additional sources of wealth as trade was generally low during that time and farming alone would not have been sufficient to fund the construction.

Another feature of the villa that reveals the occupants' social standing, wealth, and religious beliefs is the presence of mosaics. The initial mosaic was uncovered in the triclinium, or dining room. The absence of heating indicates that the room was exclusively used during warm months. The mosaic encompasses a water feature and six dancing girls, as displayed in Diagram A). These girls are portrayed as followers of Dionysus, the deity associated with wine. The mosaic illustrates the abduction of Ganymede, a young prince from Troy, by Jupiter, who intended him to serve as his cupbearer on Mount Olympus.

Jupiter has assumed the form of a

mighty eagle, an interesting observation is that this Roman mosaic features Greek figures. This could be an allusion to the Greeks' dining customs being considered fashionable. Notably, there exists a near-identical mosaic of Ganymede on the Island of Paphos in Cyprus. While it was customary for Italian mosaics to portray specific themes, it was uncommon for this practice to occur in Britain. This suggests that the occupants of this location must have possessed great wealth and social prominence, allowing them to have a mosaic closely resembling one from Italy.

It is possible that the owner of the item traveled to Greece and found it there, then had a replica made in their home country. This demonstrates the occupants' desire to maintain their own traditions and culture in Britain. Additionally, it suggests that the occupant was well-traveled and educated, as they were aware of Ganymede. The walls in the area were also adorned, indicating wealth, as the laborers who decorated them were paid three times more than those who made floor mosaics. This higher wage may be attributed to the fact that the workers had to create their own color blends.

The majority of the stones utilized were sourced locally, with limestone being chosen for its white color and sandstones ranging in shades of yellow, orange, and red. However, black stones had to be imported from Kimmeridge, Dorset, which required a week for transportation. It was customary to directly paint onto the walls, although this practice might not have been expected in Britain. Therefore, the owner of Bignor would have displayed their significant wealth by embellishing the walls, especially with black stone and direct painting. In addition, the

winter dining room showcased one of Britain's most exquisite mosaics ever discovered.

It is important to mention that mosaics were discovered in the most significant rooms, possibly due to their use for receiving visitors, making them an ideal spot for impressing guests. At the summit, there is a half-circle panel featuring the head of a goddess, potentially representing Venus, the goddess of love, as indicated by the blue nimbus surrounding her head. On both sides, there are long-tailed birds, while the "cantharus" - the flowerpot - showcases green leaves made of glass. The use of glass denotes opulence, emphasizing the owner's wealth once again.

However, the mosaics do not portray the typical pheasants that usually accompany Venus. They could be the peacocks commonly shown with Juno. Furthermore, there is a panel of cupids. Cupid, the mischievous god of Love, was Juno's son. Other theories propose that the head may depict a different goddess, like Diana, the Goddess of the Moon. Alternatively, the owners may be depicting a numen, an early primitive spirit. Given that the occupants were farmers, it could serve as a dedication to the local woodland goddesses.

It is possible that the features of the character were based on the wife of the owner. However, some believe that the character represents Helena, the mother of Constantine I, the first Christian emperor who introduced Christianity as a legal religion in 315 AD. Another idea is that the face may depict the Virgin Mary, as it is shown with a halo in figure B. Ultimately, it seems reasonable for the owners to satisfy both Roman beliefs, depicting Venus, and their Christian friends, depicting the Virgin Mary.

The panel featuring

winged cupids dressed as gladiators is likely a product that was ordered through mail, taking approximately four weeks for the artist to install. Despite the scenes of the cupid being out of sequence, the panel is of exceptional quality. This may be due to the intention of depicting practice scenes rather than actual battles, or it could be a result of careless oversight. Another flaw in the artwork can be observed in one cupid missing a foot and another having a shorter leg. Additionally, at the opposite end of the mosaic, there is an error with a design consisting of only three loops instead of four.

It is possible that the mosaic above contains a careless mistake by the artist. However, if it truly represents Venus, it is likely that the artist intentionally included an error. This was done to illustrate that only the gods are flawless and mortal men can never attain the same perfection. The main panel features three (originally four) heads within circles in its corners. These heads depict the four seasons and are believed to be the oldest mosaic discovered at Bignor. The faces may be a tribute to religious deities, as they encircle the face of Medusa, as shown in figure C.

As a farmer, the seasons held great importance for him. Nonetheless, this mosaic is less intricate compared to the others. The depiction of Medusa is not as detailed, as there are fewer snakes emerging from her head. This could be due to the artist’s lack of skill or limited funds available at the time. Additionally, the dolphin mosaics may offer a clue about the owner. It is especially intriguing, as

it features a dolphin and a triangle enclosing the letters TR, as shown in diagram T.

The inscription "Terentius" discovered on a mosaic at Lullingstone villa can be interpreted in multiple ways. It could represent the name of the artist responsible for creating the mosaic, or it may suggest that this particular mosaic is the third out of a series of eight. Alternatively, it could indicate that Terentius is the name of the owner of the villa, who possibly commissioned the mosaic to showcase their affluent lifestyle and social standing. The archaeological findings at Lullingstone villa offer valuable insights into various aspects such as the occupant's social status, religious beliefs, and wealth. One reason for Dartford's significance during Roman times lies in its close proximity to London and its strategic location along one of the earliest roads linking Londinium to the Kent Coast.

Evidence of an affluent Roman society has been discovered near the town centre of Dartford. A large Roman cemetery near Dartford suggests a sizable Roman population in the area. The construction of a villa in AD75 initially used timber and daub, but was later rebuilt using stone in the 2nd century. Lullingstone, located near the River Darent, is an advantageous location for farmers due to its proximity to the river, fertile soils, and abundant woodland. This would have provided the villa owners with access to the necessary resources for their daily life.

The river supplied water for domestic and work use. Historians believe the river was wider in the past, allowing boats to sail on it and serve as a practical means of transportation. Four Iron Age sites were discovered nearby, along with stone buildings

located every 4 to 5 km, indicating their significance as valuable resources for farmers. It is estimated that around fifteen generations resided in the villa. The villa itself has undergone significant changes, originally built with timber and daub in the first century and later reconstructed with flint and tile during the second century.

Until the fourth century, this winged corridor villa consisted of a rectangular range of rooms. However, it was later expanded with the addition of a heated room, bath, and semi-circular dining area. The high quality of construction suggests that the owner may have been a wealthy Romano-British farmer. The presence of a farmyard, including a large granary, barns, and a water mill for grinding corn, indicates that the owner derived their wealth from farming. The villa's layout is typical of prosperous Roman villas in Britain during this period, such as Chedworth and Sparsholt.

Around AD 180, the owner constructed baths on a lower level than the rest of the house. This Roman bath consisted of three sections: the caldarium (hot room), tepidarium (tepid room), and frigidarium (cold room without a hypocaust). What set the owner apart in terms of wealth was the inclusion of hot and cold plunge pools, which were not common in all villas. Later, the frigidarium was replaced with a larger bath and recreation room capable of accommodating approximately six people. The use of opus signinum further attests to the owner's significant wealth.

When archaeologists use the term "mortar mix," it now refers to a mixture that includes crushed brick or terracotta. Excavations have revealed the presence of high-quality pottery and glass, suggesting that the owner of the house during that time

may have held a high rank. The considerable renovations made to the house and the baths indicate significant wealth, as they required not only skilled construction but also numerous slaves to maintain and operate them. Although the baths at Lullingstone were eventually demolished, the main part of the house continued to exist for many years. However, around A.D. 200, this house was suddenly abandoned, leaving behind many of its possessions.

The mausoleum in the villa is significant in both pagan and Christian aspects. It resembled a Romano Celtic temple in terms of plan and size, but underneath was a tomb chamber, with a Christian chapel above it. The lead coffins found were adorned with paintings and filled with gypsum, which served as a preservative. This aligns with the occupants' beliefs in bodily resurrection. Additionally, two marble busts, dating from the second century and likely depicting family members, further indicate the owner's Mediterranean background.

Two busts are depicted in the text, one wearing a Roman toga with a beard and the other donning a military style fringed cloak fastened with a circular brooch. This suggests that the latter possibly held a high-ranking position, such as a commander. It is likely that both busts belonged to an important individual who arrived in the province of Britain from another part of the empire. Alternatively, this individual may have been an official on a long-term assignment or even an exile.

When the villa was abandoned, these busts were left behind and later restored by new owners who placed them in their basement. Eventually, this basement transformed into a chapel.

Both busts have been placed in the cellar with a gift-receiving pot to commemorate

the deceased, further corroborating this. Lullingstone's mosaics provide insight into the religious importance of the owners. The "cult of the emperor" was a prominent element of the official Roman religion when the villa was inhabited. Romans worshiped the emperor as a deity and displayed their reverence by erecting statues dedicated to them at both city and individual levels.

The Romans worshipped both the emperor and local gods. If the villa was located near woodlands, they would worship spirits associated with it. However, as long as other religious beliefs did not contradict their duty to the emperor, they were allowed. Evidence of this can be found in the cellar, which was built in AD100 and had a room above it. There were originally two entrances, but one was blocked up. The steps of the remaining entrance were used as a podium for the busts. Pots were discovered, possibly used for offering libations to the deceased souls.

The blocked entrance displayed water paintings of three local nymphs, with the central water deity portrayed with water flowing from her breast and reeds adorning her hair. This indicates that the cellar had transformed into a shrine dedicated to the worship of local goddesses. During the excavation, it was discovered that above the deep room where pagan worship occurred, there was a chapel existing simultaneously. Numerous painted plaster fragments, originally fallen from the upper room, were found. P. Nicholson reconstructed these pieces and determined that they originally depicted 6 Christians engaged in prayer, known as "orantanes".

They are dressed in long robes adorned with beads, featuring wide sashes made of embroidered fabric and tight sleeves with bracelet-like bands. These details are indicative of

a prosperous era and suggest that these figures are probably the Roman residents of the villa. All the figures share the same unique hairstyle. There is a suggestion of a curtain behind one of the young men, which may symbolize his impending death. The curtain represents the transition from earthly existence to paradise. Fragments of a large Chi-Rho symbol, originally painted on the south wall, have been reconstructed.

The walls of this separate portion of the house were adorned with painted designs of the Chi-Rho monogram, as well as the first and last letters of the Greek alphabet. Additionally, a wreath enclosed the first and last letters of the Greek alphabet, as depicted in diagram D. This symbol was widely recognized in Christian circles and had its roots in the Book of Revelations 1:8 of the bible. By incorporating this symbol, it further emphasized the owner's Christian beliefs. The presence of this early Christian symbol suggested that the cellar had transformed into a chapel around AD 380.

Christianity was legalized in 317AD and became official in the late fourth century. Initially, Christian worship took place within private houses rather than in external churches. It was common for villas to have separate chapels where Christians could gather to worship. It is likely that there were other Christians living nearby. Notably, the mosaic floor in the dining room is the main attraction. The floor is divided into two sections: an apse scene depicting the 'Rape of Europa by Jupiter' and a main area scene showing 'Bellerophon riding Pegasus killing the Chimaera', which is a fire-breathing lion-like monster.

This further demonstrates the Romans' acceptance of both Christianity and pagan ideas. The

main distinction between Celtic and Roman pagan beliefs and Christianity is that pagans believed in multiple gods, each governing a different aspect of life. Christianity, on the other hand, involved the worship of one deity who oversaw everything. While the pagan gods were seen as flawless, none of them could exert control over the entire world. Some propose that this mosaic also portrays a religious concept, depicting the conflict between good and evil with good prevailing. Additionally, Dr.

According to Martin Henig, the second line potentially conceals the name of Jesus or IESVS. Both lines start with "I" and end with "S" and "I," which could represent the initials of Jesus or Iesus. The "S" could also represent the first letter of soter, the Latin word for Saviour. In addition, there are various geometric designs, including multiple swastikas, which traditionally symbolize friendship, positioned between the two main sections. This could possibly suggest the loving and friendly nature of the owner. Overall, the content of this text showcases the owner's demonstration of their appreciation and knowledge of classical art and literature.

Further down the social class, the less wealthy villa owners would have hired only one or two less skilled craftsmen to create their mosaics. Those villa owners who had modest resources might place a mosaic in the main reception room in order to make the most impressive impression possible. The richest individuals could afford to dedicate entire sections of their villas to rooms for socializing and conducting business. The primary mosaic at Lullingstone portrays Europa being kidnapped by Jupiter, who has taken the form of a bull, as depicted in diagram E. This mythical event

is recounted in the initial book of Virgil's Aeneid.

The floor contains a metrical couplet that translates to "If jealous Juno had seen the swimming of the bull, she would with more justice have gone all the way to the halls of Aeolus." This suggests that the owner may have been well-educated and familiar with Virgil's Aeneid in Latin. Alternatively, it is possible that the owner intentionally designed the floor to create a certain impression. However, the design does not appear to be perfectly symmetrical or as sophisticated as expected, possibly because the artist wanted to please the gods and showcase their own incompetence.

It is possible that the artist did not know about the Aeneid. Historical evidence indicates that a fire destroyed most of the villa in the early 5th century, and there have been no signs of people living there after AD420. This event happened at the same time as the end of Roman rule in Britain, which resulted in a stop to money circulation. Although farming and trade continued, there was no longer a requirement to sell goods for cash to pay taxes. Nonetheless, some villa economies like Frocester (Gloucester) endured until the fifth century.

However, the lack of funds and services made it impossible to upkeep the houses. The affluent families residing in areas such as Chedworth and Bignor heavily relied on numerous servants to handle all tasks. Once the 'system' of Roman Britain crumbled, villa owners found themselves incapable of maintaining and managing their properties without slaves and estate workers. The notion that Lullingstone was deserted aligns with the overall decline in the empire during that period.

Despite the lack of evidence, there is

no indication that Bignor was not successful during this time. No traces of violence, such as human remains or injured bones, have been discovered. The residents may have left Bignor in order to defend other parts of the empire that were facing unrest and threats on their borders. From 408 to 409, Britain encountered attacks from tribes on mainland Europe. It is plausible that invaders or settlers triggered a fire that resulted in the destruction of Lullingstone.

It is possible that Bignor may have also been abandoned in a fire, similar to Fishbourne. Overall, the archaeological evidence discovered at Bignor indicates that the owner was a retired soldier who earned money from farming and received a pension. One of the early owners of Lullingstone was likely a Roman official who settled in Britain and appeared to be highly educated with a significant social standing. Subsequent owners were probably Romano British. The artifacts found at the site suggest that the final primary resident was a wealthy Christian landowner who owned a large agricultural estate during the later period of the villa's existence.