Computer Evolution Essay Example
Computer Evolution Essay Example

Computer Evolution Essay Example

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  • Pages: 13 (3473 words)
  • Published: January 2, 2018
  • Type: Research Paper
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Computers have become an integral part of modern society, permeating every aspect of our lives. They are used for more than just calculations, with applications ranging from supermarket scanners to telephone switching centers to automatic teller machines (ATMs). Understanding the origins and future of computers is crucial to fully appreciating their impact on our lives.

The abacus, a computing device dating back 5,000 years ago in Asia Minor, was the first notable tool for performing computations using sliding beads on a rack. While it lost significance with the rise of paper and pencil methods in Europe, it laid the foundation for future advancements.

In 1642, Blaine Pascal invented the Baseline: a numerical wheel calculator that utilized movable dials to perform addition calculations up to eight digits in length. Operating with a base of ten, one dial would be moved

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by ten notches or one complete revolution causing the next dial representing the tens' column to move one position. As each tens' dial completed one revolution, the hundreds' dial would move one notch and so on. However, Pascal's device was limited to performing only addition.

Later in 1694, Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz enhanced Pascal's device by creating a machine capable of multiplication as well.

Leibniz improved upon Pascal's notes and drawings by incorporating gears and dials into his mechanical multiplier. Leibniz's design featured a unique stepped-drum gear, which was an elongated version of a flat gear. The invention of mechanical calculators gained popularity in 1820 with Charles Xavier Thomas De Collar's arithmetic machine. This calculator allowed for addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, offering a more practical method of computation compared to previous devices. It remained widel

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used until World War I and played a significant role in the era of mechanical computation alongside Pascal and Leibniz.

However, the true origins of modern computers can be attributed to Charles Babbage, an English mathematics professor who recognized the relationship between machines and mathematics as early as 1812. Frustrated by calculation errors for the Royal Society, Babbage envisioned steam-powered computer automation. In 1822, he presented his first solution—the steam-powered Difference Engine—which could perform differential equations and included features such as stored programs and automatic result printing.

Babbage then shifted his focus to creating the Analytical Engine—a groundbreaking general-purpose computer. Lady Lovelace, Babbage's assistant and daughter of Lord Byron, played a crucial role in designing this machine.Lady Lovelace played an instrumental role in the design of Babbage's Engine, assisting with refining plans, securing funding, and sharing details with the public. She possessed a profound understanding of the machine and even developed instruction routines for it, making her the first female computer programmer. Her contributions were so significant that the U.S. Defense Department named a programming language DAD in recognition of her work during the 1970s.

Although Babbage's steam-powered Engine was never constructed and may appear primitive compared to today's standards, it laid the groundwork for modern general-purpose computers and introduced innovative concepts. The Analytical Engine consisted of more than 50,000 components and utilized perforated cards as input devices to provide operating instructions. It also featured a memory "store" capable of holding up to 1,000 numbers with a maximum length of 50 decimal digits.

Additionally, this remarkable machine included a processing unit called a "mill," which could execute instructions in any order. Output devices were present to generate printed results

as well. Inspired by Jacquard's punch card system invention for looms in 1820, Babbage incorporated this concept into his machine instructions.

In 1889, Hollering also employed punch cards for computing purposes when seeking a faster method to calculate the U.S Census. While Babbage used perforated cards for instructions, Hollering utilized them primarily for storing data that could be mechanically processed.The punch card system, introduced by Hollering, utilized punches on cards to represent numbers and letters. This system allowed for the storage of up to 80 variables and was used by census takers to compile results quickly and reduce errors. In 1896, Hollering established the Tabulating Machine Company (later known as Remington Rand and Burroughs), which produced punch card readers for business use. Punch cards became essential tools in both business and government data processing until the 1970s.

During this time period, engineers made significant advancements in computing. In 1931, Bush created a large calculator capable of solving complex differential equations. However, Atanasoff and Berry had a different vision; they envisioned an all-electronic computer based on Boole's research on Boolean algebra as a more efficient solution. By applying this concept to electronic circuits, they successfully created the first all-electronic computer by 1940.

Unfortunately, their accomplishments were overshadowed by similar advancements made by other scientists due to a loss of funding for their project. The outbreak of World War II prompted governments to recognize the strategic importance of computers, leading to the development of modern computers across five generations.

The first generation (1945-1956) was directly influenced by wartime efforts and saw increased funding for computer development projects.During World War II, there were two significant computer developments. The first was the Z

computer designed by German engineer Conrad Use for aircraft and missile design. Additionally, the Allied forces made advancements in powerful computers. In 1943, the British completed Colossus, a secret code-breaking computer used to decipher German messages. However, its impact on the industry was limited due to its specific purpose and secrecy until after the war ended.

On the other hand, American efforts led to an achievement when Harvard engineer Howard H. Awaken collaborated with MM to create an all-electronic calculator in 1944. This calculator was known as Mark I or the Harvard-IBM Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator (ASCC). It was utilized by the U.S Navy for generating ballistic charts and occupied about half the length of a football field. With approximately 500 miles of wiring and electromagnetic signals moving its mechanical components, it could perform basic arithmetic and complex equations but had limitations in speed and flexibility.

Another development mentioned is MENACE (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer), which resulted from collaboration between the U.S Overspent and University of Pennsylvania. MENACE was a large computer comprising of 18,000 vacuum tubes, 70,000 resistors, and 5 million soldered joints.

It occupied an entire section of Philadelphia.

Unlike Colossus and Mark I, MENACE was a general-purpose computer that operated at speeds 1,000 times faster than Mark I. It was developed by John Prosper Cocker (1919-1995) and John W. Macaulay (1907-1980).

During this time period in the mid-1940s, John von Neumann (1903-1957) also joined the University of Pennsylvania team working on these computers. He introduced concepts in computer design that would have a significant impact on computer engineering for the next four decades.

In 1945, von Neumann developed ADVANCE (Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer), which featured memory capable of storing programs and data. This innovation greatly enhanced the versatility of computer programming through techniques like "stored memory" and "conditional control transfer." In the von Neumann architecture, the central processing unit played a crucial role in coordinating all computer functions from a single source.

One notable example of technological advancement was the creation of UNIVAC I by Remington Rand in 1951. It became one of the earliest commercially available computers to benefit from these advancements.

Both the U.S. Census Bureau and General Electric owned Univac, which gained fame for accurately predicting Dwight D. Eisenhower's victory in the 1952 presidential election.

During the initial generation of computers, distinct operating instructions were customized for each task, resulting in diverse binary-coded programs or machine languages for each computer. However, this approach posed challenges and limited both versatility and speed in programming. The utilization of vacuum tubes and magnetic drums as data storage also contributed to the large size of these early computers.

Between 1956 and 1963, significant progress was made during the second generation of computers with the introduction of transistors in 1948. Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and enabled smaller and more efficient electronic devices such as televisions, radios, and computers. By 1956, transistors were implemented into computers along with advancements in magnetic-core memory technology.

The second generation computers, including IBM's Stretch and Sperry-Rand's LARCH, were smaller, faster, more reliable, and more energy-efficient compared to their predecessors. Although initially developed for atomic energy laboratories to handle substantial amounts of data required by atomic scientists, these machines proved

too costly and powerful for the computing needs of the business sector, making them less appealing.The installation of only two LARCH computers occurred: one at Lawrence Radiation Labs in Livermore, California (known as Livermore Atomic Research Computer) and the other at the U.S. Navy Research and Development Center in Washington D.C. The advent of second generation computers led to the replacement of machine language with assembly language, which resulted in shorter and easier programming codes compared to long binary codes. By the early 1970s, commercially successful second generation computers from companies like IBM became widely used in business, universities, and government sectors. These machines utilized solid-state technology with transistors instead of vacuum tubes. Early computers incorporated various components such as printers, tape storage devices, disk storage units, memory systems, operating systems, and stored programs. The IBM 1401 model was particularly well-received and considered a game-changer in the computer industry similar to how the Model T revolutionized automobiles. By 1965, most major businesses were utilizing second generation computers for financial processing purposes. Storing programs within a computer's memory brought flexibility and cost efficiency to business operations by allowing quick instruction replacement within the computer itself.High-level languages like COBOL and FORTRAN simplified programming tasks during this era thereby opening up new career prospects in programming analysis and expertise in computer systems .Despite advancements in transistors, heat generation remained problematic in third-generation computers until engineer Jack Kills from Texas Instruments invented the integrated circuit (C) in 1958. By combining three electronic components on a small silicon disc made from quartz rock called a semiconductor chip, scientists further increased component integration and reduced computer size. The development of an

operating system allowed machines to run multiple programs simultaneously.

From 1971 onwards, the fourth generation of computers witnessed significant advancements in integration technology. Large-scale integration (LSI) enabled hundreds of components to be placed on a single chip. This was followed by very large scale integration (VEIL) and ultra-large scale integration (ULSI), which further increased component numbers to hundreds of thousands and millions respectively. These technological developments resulted in smaller, more affordable computers that were more powerful, efficient, and reliable.

In 1971, the Intel 4004 chip revolutionized integrated circuits by consolidating all computer components onto one tiny chip. Previously, integrated circuits were designed for specific purposes; however, this breakthrough allowed for the manufacturing and programming of a single microprocessor that could cater to various needs. As a result, everyday household items like microwaves started incorporating computer capabilities while making computers accessible to the general public.During the mid-1970s, computer manufacturers focused on enhancing the user experience by creating computers that were more consumer-friendly. They provided software packages with user-friendly applications like word processing and spreadsheets. Companies such as Commodore, Radio Shack, and Apple Computers played a vital role in this field.

The early 1980s saw a surge in consumer interest in advanced programmable home computers due to the rising popularity of arcade video games and home video game systems. In response to this demand, IBM introduced its personal computer (PC) in 1981. The PC quickly gained widespread adoption in homes, offices, and schools.

Throughout the 1980s, there was a significant increase in computer usage following the introduction of affordable IBM PC clones. The number of personal computers being used more than doubled from 2 million in 1981 to 5.5 million in

1982 and reached an astonishing 65 million by 1992.

Over time, computers became smaller and more portable starting with desktop computers and progressing to portable ones that could fit into briefcases. Eventually, palmtop computers were developed that could be conveniently carried around inside a breast pocket.

In competition with IBM's PC, Apple introduced the Macintosh line of computers in 1984. What made the Macintosh stand out was its user-friendly design featuring an operating system that allowed users to move screen icons instead of relying solely on typed commands.In addition, it had a mouse that could control the screen cursor by moving one's hand on the computer screen. As computers became more prevalent in workplaces, new ways of utilizing their potential emerged. Smaller but powerful computers could be interconnected or networked together to share memory space, software, information, and enable communication between them. These networked computers gave rise to electronic co-ops which differed from mainframe computers that shared time among multiple terminals for various applications. Networks could be established using direct wiring such as Local Area Networks (LANA) or telephone lines. Over time, these networks expanded globally in reach. The Internet is an example of a global network that connects computers worldwide into a single network of information.

During the 1992 U.S. Residential election, vice-presidential candidate AY Gore emphasized the importance of creating the "information superhighway." While it may take years or even decades for such an extensive network to fully develop, electronic mail (E-mail) currently serves as the predominant use of computer networks like the Internet. This feature allows users to send messages through networked terminals worldwide or within an office setting by inputting a computer address.

Defining

the fifth generation of computers poses challenges as it is still in its early stages.Arthur C. Slacker's book, 2001: A Space Odyssey, showcases HALLWAY, a fifth-generation computer like HAL in the novel. HAL had advanced capabilities such as conversing with humans, processing visual data, and learning from experiences. Unfortunately, HAL went awry by taking control of a spaceship and causing harm to its occupants. While replicating HALLWAY may be unattainable for real-life computers, recent engineering advancements have made achieving many of its functions possible. The text explores features and progress in fifth-generation computers like voice recognition, human-like reasoning abilities, and language translation. It also highlights two breakthroughs: parallel processing and superconductor technology that enable the creation of these computers. Present-day computers already possess some traits of fifth-generation systems like expert systems used in medical diagnosis; however widespread use will take more time. Overall, personal computer history has greatly impacted business activities, personal pursuits, communication methods, and thinking processes.
The evolution of PCs has been the result of the convergence of thought, hardware, and software rather than a sudden revolution. Although they originated from mainframe and minicomputers in the 1960s and 1970s, it was initially believed that small computers had no value for individual use during the first three decades of the computer age. PCs or microcomputers are smaller than minicomputers, which are smaller than mainframe computers. Early mainframes were so large that they occupied an entire house, while minicomputers were about the size of a refrigerator and stove. The development of microcomputers can be traced back to the early 1970s when they could fit on a desk. Computers were originally designed as individual units for complex

calculations, providing greater speed and accuracy compared to humans.

One significant advancement in technology was the invention of transistors by John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley at Bell Laboratories on December 23, 1947. However, due to a seven-year antitrust lawsuit against AT (the owners of Bell Labs), it took until 1956 for transistors to become available to U.S. manufacturers. As part of the settlement, AT had to grant licenses for transistor manufacturing to American companies. Transistors brought about a revolution in computers by replacing vacuum tubes with smaller and more efficient electronics.The introduction of innovative computer models like the IBM 701 in 1952 by IBM played a crucial role in making computers practical for business and government applications. These computers could be easily shipped and connected at the customer's location, leading to the establishment of information processing departments in various settings such as corporate offices, government offices, and university campuses. IBM continued their advancements with the mass-produced IBM 650 in 1953 and introduced the first solid-state transistorized computer, the IBM 7090, in 1959. In 1964, another milestone was reached with the release of the System/360 series which featured mainframes that were compatible with each other. This period saw significant growth in the computer industry as companies heavily invested in research and hired technicians and programmers to effectively use these machines. However, despite their capabilities, entering and processing raw data remained a complex and time-consuming task, leading to frustrations among users resulting in phrases like "garbage in/garbage out," "It's a computer mistake," and "Sorry, the computer's down and we can't do anything." In the 1970s, college students would carry bundles of computer cards to ensure they

had their allotted computer time. To protect punch card readers from damage, they coined the phrase "Do not fold spindle or mutilate." With each new achievement, computers became more mysterious.In 1961, a computer successfully calculated pi to 100,000 decimal places. By 1967, computers had advanced to the point where they could play checkers and were even granted honorary membership in chess federations. Banks responded to the increasing prevalence of computers by printing checks with magnetic ink for easier processing.

Until 1971, computers were seen as large electronic brains that required specialized rooms with controlled climates and consumed substantial amounts of data and electricity. However, this perception changed when the handheld calculator was invented. Using an Intel 4004 chip with 4004 transistors programmed for complex mathematical calculations, scientists and engineers could now carry the computational power of a computer with them wherever they went – job sites, classrooms, laboratories, etc.

These handheld calculators differed from previous computers like MENACE and were not officially recognized as such. The microprocessor developed by Robert Nonce revolutionized how people worked. The introduction of small handheld calculators sparked curiosity and speculation, leading to the emergence of new technologies and ideas.

During the early 1900s, computers primarily served as number crunchers and printers of lengthy streams of green and white paper. IBM Selectors typewriters were considered top-of-the-line "word processors," while Xerox copiers produced photocopies. It was difficult for most individuals to comprehend a real-time data processing computer capable of handling both numbers and letters on an 8-bit data system.During this time, Xerox started developing a personal computer called "Alto" at their Palo Alto Research Center. Despite their efforts, they needed to convince someone of its

usefulness to make it the first personal computer. In parallel, Digital Equipment Corporation (DECK) had product engineers working on DECK Decanter - a PC that combined hardware with a desk. However, management failed to see its value and halted progress on the device. The major computer companies of that era didn't believe in affordable PCs replacing their expensive computers. Nevertheless, rebels within these companies introduced personal computers by gathering in garages and attending meetings with like-minded enthusiasts who envisioned a different future from what industry giants had planned for three decades. In 1975, Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems, Inc.(MITTS) offered hobbyists an Altair 8800 computer kit - the first popularized PC alongside Rubric's Cube. Despite lacking essential components like a monitor or keyboard, it experienced immense demand similar to Rubric's Cube.Although assembling an Altair demanded technical expertise, it showcased the potential and appeal of personal computers. It played a crucial role in launching a major player in the computer industry and served as a starting point for two young software programmers. In 1974, Bill Gates and Paul Allen created BASIC specifically for the Altair and established Microsoft Corporation. Also in that year, Stephen Wozniak and Steve Jobs financed Apple's creation by selling the Apple I to hobbyists using their own resources. The fully assembled Apple II was released in 1977 with enhanced features like a color monitor, sound, and graphics. Despite being perceived as a mere toy by some, it gained popularity. In the same year, Radio Shack TRS-80 or "Trash 80" debuted with the advanced Zillion Z-80 microprocessor, introducing competition. During this period, dominant players such as Apple, Commodore, and Radio Shack offered PCs

with varying RAM and storage capacity options. Among users, one popular choice was the TRY-80 which had K RAM and K ROOM available. However, compatibility became an issue due to different manufacturers using various floppy disk drives. This made transferring programs or documents between machines challenging. To address this problem in 1978, Apple introduced the floppy disk drive for their Apple II model as a reliable storage option instead of embossers or unreliable tape cassettes previously used.
Despite the availability of advancements in personal computing at that time, individuals who were not familiar with computers did not recognize the worth in purchasing an expensive calculator when other methods were easily accessible. Nevertheless, everything transformed in 1979 when VisiCalc was introduced for the Apple II. Created by Dan Bricklin and Bob Frankston, this groundbreaking spreadsheet program provided non-computer users with a convincing incentive to invest in a computer. With VisiCalc, users had the ability to adjust one number within a budget and witness how it impacted the entire budget. The arrival of this innovation marked a significant advancement in the realm of personal computing.

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