Comprehensive Examination Comprehensive Question 1 Engineering Essay Example
Comprehensive Examination Comprehensive Question 1 Engineering Essay Example

Comprehensive Examination Comprehensive Question 1 Engineering Essay Example

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  • Pages: 14 (3742 words)
  • Published: August 1, 2017
  • Type: Research Paper
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The Airline Deregulation Act of 1978 impacted air travel in the United States and the hub and spoke network. While some airlines like Southwest and JetBlue chose not to adopt the hub and spoke system, they still achieved profits. However, many other players in the industry struggled to find a balance between efficiency and profitability after deregulation. The inefficiency of the hub and spoke system is often blamed for this struggle. This raises questions about whether point-to-point travel will be preferred by consumers in the future. The 1978 Airline Deregulation Act transferred control over air travel from politics to market forces, phasing out the Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB) which regulated entry into the industry, issued licenses, set prices for services, managed agreements between carriers, oversaw mergers, and addressed consumer issues. The CAB Sunset Act led to its official expiration on Dec

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ember 31st, 1984. This trend of deregulation was part of a global movement towards liberalizing air travel experienced particularly strongly in Asia, Latin America, and the European Union. It also had significant implications for airports as prior to 1978 both domestic and international travel within the airline industry were regulated.During that period, there was significant growth in certified routes. By 1978, the United States had a total of 21 domestic and 73 international airlines operating within its borders. This rapid growth, along with the increasing popularity of air travel, resulted in over 219 billion airline passenger miles logged that year, establishing the airline industry as an important player in the U.S. economy.

To regulate this influential industry, the Federal Government exercised its authority from the United States Constitution to oversee interstate and foreign commerce. The mai

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objectives of this regulation were to stabilize prices, services, and competition among carriers while also addressing issues such as bankruptcies and profitability.

Furthermore, stricter safety laws were implemented by the Federal Government to mitigate accident risks and ensure that airlines had sufficient financial resources for safe planning, operation,and maintenance of aircrafts and landing fields. Another crucial aspect of regulation was reducing subsidies used for mail plans since the 1920s since it was believed that financially stable airlines would require less federal government funding.

To effectively oversee these regulations, the Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB) was established with three primary functions: providing routes to airlines, limiting the number of air carriers allowed in operation, and regulating fares for paying passengers on flights.During this period, airlines employed a routing system known as "direct-route" or "point-to-point." This required flying directly between two small markets. However, this often resulted in many flights being only partially filled, leading to financial losses for the airlines. Consequently, airports established dedicated departments to advocate for more routes and frequencies from both the airlines and the Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB). Despite the presence of the CAB, the industry became too vast and complex, straining regulations. Additionally, economic challenges such as increased inflation, decreased productivity, and rising labor costs weakened the overall economy. As a result of these operational difficulties faced by airlines, there was a gradual collapse within the industry.

To support their success amidst these challenges, federal authorities made the decision to deregulate many previously imposed controls. Although this sparked debates regarding potential negative impacts on safety, service concentration, small communities, airline employees' welfare and funding; ultimately in 1978,the Airline Deregulation Act was passed. This act eliminated

various regulations including route blessings ,menu blessings , frequency blessings etc.,and also resulted in shutting down of CAB.It also allowed for consolidation among large airlines.The Deregulation Act brought benefits for airlines as it provided them with freedom to enter or expand desired routes.The introduction of Delta Airlines' hub and spoke network in 1955 led to its widespread adoption. Many other airlines also established multiple hubs, which improved efficiency in serving smaller markets and provided more flight options at lower costs for passengers. However, this new network had a significant impact on airports, with some experiencing increased traffic while others became less busy. To address this issue, the Essential Air Service (EAS) was implemented to save smaller community routes.

Under the EAS, airlines were given the freedom to choose certain airports as "hubs," while designating others with less traffic as the "radius." This decision created tension between airport operators who had to adapt to new entrants and changes in services. Additionally, the deregulation allowed new airlines to enter the market without meeting established airline requirements. As a result, competition increased and average airfare decreased.

The commercial air service industry consists of three main components: air carriers, air traffic control, and airports. While the Airline Deregulation Act primarily impacted air carriers, federal regulations still oversee airport operations through the management of Air Traffic Control (ATC). Despite this act, all commercial service airports are still owned by local or regional authorities.Even though the Airline Deregulation Act has somewhat compromised the impact of federal operation of airports and ATC, airports still have to abide by similar regulations as before 1978. The potential privatization of airports can help ease regulations and enhance

daily operations for consumers. In terms of airport privatization, the international airline industry is ahead of the United States. Auckland, Buenos Aires, Dusseldorf, Johannesburg, London, Melbourne, and Rome have already been converted to private ownership. Some airports like Frankfurt have undergone partial privatization while others like Hong Kong and Tokyo are next in line for privatization. Under private operators, airports typically sign 30-year leases and maintain ownership of the entire airport facility while the government continues to own the land. One advantage of privatized airports is their willingness to take on new risks compared to risk-averse government-owned counterparts. Private airports are more open to expanding facilities and gates compared to inactive and non-innovative government-owned ones. Following the 9/11 attacks, developments impacted the airline industry resulting in an economic downturn and increased use of internet-based travel planning directly with airlines by travelers.The implementation of AIR-21 provisions by the Department of Transportation (DOT) has allowed for airport competition programs, diminishing some advantages held by existing airlines like economies of scale and Computer Reservation Systems. However, political and regulatory obstacles have posed significant challenges to airport construction and expansion efforts. Grants from the federal Airport Improvement Program (AIP) have increased the number of federal requirements associated with airport funds. Only one major airport has been built since 1978, with a few additional runways added at congested airports. Resistance from local communities (NIMBY) and environmental concerns regarding noise and emissions also act as barriers to airport construction. Additionally, airports are hindered in recovering costs for air carrier use of facilities due to limitations on fees they can charge airlines set by federal law as "fair and reasonable" amounts. Allowing

airports more flexibility in pricing takeoffs and landings based on supply and demand would help alleviate congestion at busy airports that led to the implementation of regulations known as "slot" controls by the FAA in 1968 to address congestion and delays at major airports.The high-density rule continues to enforce capacity restrictions at JFK, LaGuardia, and Reagan National airports. The air travel industry is undergoing changes to increase competitiveness, including congestion pricing and capacity expansion at some airports. However, limiting supply through government decree is a strict approach to demand management. Major airports prioritize larger aircraft using their slots, while airlines have experienced economic liberalization. Despite this, the industry still must comply with numerous regulations related to capital, labor regulations, and compensation practices that reflect historical political protection and control. Deregulation has led to internal restructuring among airlines but further government action is needed for future sector growth. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA), as a command-and-control government agency, may not be suitable for providing air traffic control services in a dynamic industry. It is suggested that land slots and airport space allocation should be market-based rather than administratively determined. National ownership regulations should also adapt to increased international competition.
If the government adopts an open market solution and deregulates the grid, it will bring more benefits and cost reductions for air travelers. It is crucial for all aircrew members to be able to recognize, identify, and respond to symptoms of hypoxia in order to prevent accidents, disasters, or fatalities. The text below discusses the different types of hypoxia, their symptoms, and their impact on human performance. It also explains how the FAA has established regulations to assist

aircrew members in dealing with conditions that may lead to hypoxia. There are four types of hypoxia: hypoxic hypoxia, hypemic hypoxia, stagnant hypoxia, and histotoxic hypoxia. The most common type is when there is a decrease in oxygen levels within the body which leads to an inability to distribute oxygen efficiently across the lungs. This results in less than 100% saturation of blood in the arteries and slows down or completely halts all bodily functions including brain function. Individuals with previous lung damage or who smoke may experience these effects more rapidly compared to healthy individuals.Hypemic hypoxia, which is characterized by a reduction in oxygenated blood circulation despite the presence of sufficient oxygen, can be caused by factors such as carbon monoxide poisoning. Stagnant hypoxia, histotoxic hypoxia, and hypoxic hypoxia are three different types of this condition. Stagnant hypoxia occurs when there is a decrease in cardiac output or venous pooling during high G-force maneuvers. Understanding the function of semicircular canals is crucial during flight because they help maintain balance and detect changes in head position and movement through fluid-filled channels within the inner ear. Aviation regulatory bodies like FAA have set regulations to ensure aircrew members' safety by addressing conditions that may contribute to experiencing hypoxia. These guidelines assist in managing potential risks associated with low oxygen levels while flying or operating aircraft under specific circumstances. Hypoxia happens when the heart fails to generate enough pressure for effective blood circulation, preventing blood cells from attaching to oxygenated cells. Histotoxic hypoxia occurs when individuals are poisoned with alcohol or nitrile, rendering enough cells useless for proper circulation.The tragic accident involving Payne Stewart on October 25,

1999, aboard Learjet N47BA serves as a distressing example of the harmful consequences of hypoxia during flight. Both the crew and passengers experienced hypoxic hypoxia as they traveled from Orlando, Florida to Dallas, Texas. It is believed that while flying at an altitude of 46,000 feet, there was either a loss in oxygen pressure or a complete failure of the aircraft's onboard oxygen system. Initially, those inside the cabin may not have noticed symptoms of hypoxia exhibited by the crew such as decreased ability for eyes to adjust to darkness and color after take-off at 5,000 feet. The next symptom would be an increase in respiration rate, heart rate, blood pressure, and cardiac output. These effects often lead individuals to deny their condition and attempt to persevere through these symptoms. Eventually, the crew begins experiencing distinct signs of hypoxia like numbness, dizziness tingling sensations,and other unusual feelings.These symptoms can vary depending on factors such as gender , health , weight and age.Eventually,hypoxia causes unconsciousness and results in loss of control over the aircraft.Once fuel runs out,a crash ensues.The human body relies on a constant supply of oxygen for critical functions including cell respiration,tissue rejuvenation energy production from food,and waste disposal.Survival without oxygen is only possible for a brief period.As oxygen levels decline,bodily performance also declines.In the case of flight N47BA's crew, they should have been familiar with the location of the aircraft's switch and its relation to operation. A thorough preflight check should also have been conducted. The findings from the NTSB suggest that the plane's O system was most likely not activated while on the ground due to the inconvenient access location of the

switch. This accident brought attention to a human factor - the absence of a warning system for cabin depressurization fail safes, which allowed the aircraft to continue flying or climbing without maintaining a suitable interior atmosphere for sustaining life. Furthermore, it is important to consider the design flaw in switch placement. If this switch were relocated inside the cabin, it would enable the crew to promptly identify and resolve any issues. G-force is another significant aspect of human limitations during flight. Gravitational force (G-force) refers to an object's acceleration during free fall. On land, an object experiences 1g-force when at rest. Zero-g indicates that an object is experiencing free fall without gravitational influence. Positive G-force occurs when gravity's pull and an opposing push of equal force are disrupted by acceleration. For example, if a pilot weighing 150lbs flies level, they encounter 1g-force where their weight is balanced out by the lift created by the plane (push/pull).During a G-force maneuver, when the pilot abruptly pulls up, there is an acceleration that requires them to resist gravity. This leads to upward acceleration and a positive G-force maneuver. Excessive G-force on the body can have various effects like pooling, grey out, black out or even unconsciousness. Pooling happens when blood is drawn towards the lower extremities and cannot return to the heart due to body forces. This can result in death or unconsciousness within a short period of time.

Grey out occurs before blackout and is characterized by reduced blood flow to the brain, which causes a temporary loss of color vision and perceived dimming of lights. Resting or lying down can help alleviate strain on the circulatory system

and improve blood flow to the brain, relieving a grey out. If not resolved, a grey out can progress into a blackout where there is complete loss of vision while conscious due to excessive blood loss to the brain.

Blackouts are extremely dangerous and if left unaddressed can lead to unconsciousness or even death. Unconsciousness during a G-force maneuver is known as G-LOC (G-force loss of consciousness). It occurs when severe depletion of blood from the brain caused by G-forces reaches its final stage before death.

Intellectual hypoxia may occur if one exceeds their physical limits during a G-force maneuver resulting in a state called G-LOC that could cause fatal accidents due to loss of consciousness.
Each individual has their own limitations in dealing with G-forces influenced by factors like age and health status. Pilots have access to training programs that help them understand and identify symptoms such as pooling, grey-outs, blackouts, and unconsciousness while potentially increasing their tolerance for G-forces. The main goal of this training is to educate people about the impact of G-force maneuvers on their bodies. Additionally, these maneuvers can cause a dangerous physiological condition called tilts, which often affects pilots' vestibular system during flights.

The fluids in our ears play a vital role in navigation and sensory input on land but can be misleading during flight physics. For example, when a pilot performs a slow and wide right-hand orbit, the fluid in their ear will flow to one side without their awareness. If they continue this orbit for long enough, the fluid may create a false perception of vertical position. As a result, when they exit the turn, their body will send inaccurate signals

indicating a left tilt. These false signals may cause the pilot to overcompensate by turning right to regain balance.

To overcome this situation, pilots must rely on instruments like gyroscopes or visual cues such as the skyline. Our bodies contain internal motion sensors located within both ears' semicircular canals (horizontal canal, superior canal, and posterior canal).The canals in our ear contain endolymph fluid and small hairs that move when the fluid passes through them. This movement helps our brain detect motion accurately. The vestibular system, located within the membranous maze, is responsible for maintaining balance. It consists of cristae in semicircular canals and sunspots in utriculus and sacculus (Britannica, Inc., 2012). However, if there is a change in axis, the fluid may momentarily stop moving in the ear canal, tricking the brain into perceiving everything as normal. This can lead to misconceptions such as tilts, cemetery spin, and graveyard spiral when the body senses a different rotation direction. For example, during a cemetery spin, a pilot enters a controlled spin and receives a turn signal from the semi-circular canal. As the spin continues, the fluid stops moving through the canals falsely signaling an end to it. Consequently, when attempting to control out of it using opposite rudder input, pilots feel as though they are spinning in the opposite direction. Failing to rely on visual references and instruments may cause pilots to unintentionally reenter the original spin direction mistaking it for level flight. To address these risks, various training programs have been implemented with significant funds invested in research to raise awareness about these conditions. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) ensures that all pilots meet medical requirements

for flying.The frequency of pilots' annual flight physicals depends on their employment type and is conducted to confirm their physical well-being for normal operation. Various factors such as known illnesses, pilots' medications, alcohol consumption habits, and fatigue levels are evaluated by doctors. EKG tests and hearing tests are also conducted. If any criteria are not met during these evaluations or tests, specific procedures must be completed before returning to flight status. In addition, a personal checklist called "IM SAFE" is used to assess the physical and mental safety of aircrew members for flying.

The text discusses the use of a checklist in civilian and military operations to evaluate aspects like illness, medication, stress, alcohol, fatigue, and emotion before considering flight. It also mentions the availability of physiological training programs that assess individuals' ability to handle the effects of hypoxia. The FAA provides AC 3150-7 for this training in altitude chamber facilities that simulate in-flight hypoxia. These plans have been proven effective in reducing the risk associated with unintentionally entering or being able to correct a physical limitation.The aviation community and the FAA are constantly seeking new methods to enhance operational efficiency and flight safety. One such system that can help achieve this goal is Boeing's Integrated Aircraft Health Management technology. This technology utilizes both passive and active sensors to provide information on all performance functions and structures. Commercial airliners are equipped with health monitoring systems that cover various sub-systems, including landing gear, avionics, and environmental control. These systems enable faster information flow, bringing financial benefits, enhanced safety measures, and simplicity for aircraft operators who choose to utilize them.

Integrated aircraft health management (AHM) technology uses passive and

active sensors to monitor various sub-systems in commercial airliners. Ground-based AHM software applications analyze data from onboard sensors to offer a comprehensive course of action.

In the 1980s, Boeing conducted research on broadband communications for the U.S. government. After the Cold War ended, Boeing entered negotiations with commercial airlines like American and Delta to adapt this technology for civilian use. Originally named Aviation Information Services, it was later rebranded as Global Mobile Services.

By the late 1990s, there was a growing interest among travelers in accessing the internet through satellite-enabled systems.
Boeing introduced Connexion by Boeing® on April 27th, 2000, offering high-speed connectivity to commercial aviation. Lufthansa German Airlines became the international launch client at the 2001 Paris Air Show. Meetings were held in Seattle, Washington on February 28, 2001 with airlines to discuss implementing this service. The goal was to provide passengers with high-speed internet access during flights through wired Ethernet or wireless Wi-Fi connections. The cost ranged from $10 to $35 depending on travel distance and was added to the ticket price (Source: Boeing 2010; Aerospace Notebook 2010). United Airlines, Delta Airlines, and American Airlines formed a partnership agreement on June 13, 2001 with support from Lufthansa for international expansion. To enable onboard connectivity, aircrafts required a phased array aerial or automatically steered KU set antenna along with rental orbiter transponders and land stations for data transmission. Download speeds could reach up to 20 Mbit/s while upload speeds were up to 2 Mbit/s. Consistent speed faced challenges due to factors like available ground resources, regulatory limitations, and aircraft location (Connection by Boeing 2010). On December 27, 2001 Connexion obtained its first license from the Federal Communications

Commission for operations within the United States.Connexion, a global service provider, created opportunities for obtaining licenses for data transmissions in various countries. This included the United Kingdom, Europe Middle East Australia, and Asia (Source: Connection by Boeing). To achieve its goal of becoming a global service provider, Connexion hired thousands of employees such as field technicians for land repeater stations, maintenance technicians for equipment repairs, installers for aircraft equipment, and customer service representatives.

In collaboration with Lufthansa and British Airways, Connexion launched its initial product on two Boeing 747 aircraft in 2003. However, it didn't generate sales until the first quarter of 2004. In 2005, Connexion expanded its client database by adding seven more airlines. This allowed them to enhance their technology in 2006 by introducing four live broadcast television channels on international flights. These channels primarily featured world news, country-specific news, and national stock market trading.

Despite continuous advancements made by Connexion during this time period under Boeing's subsidiary company, the industry experienced a decline in sales. To stay profitable during the recession period, Boeing reduced prices and added additional benefits like incorporating frequent flyer miles towards the service cost.Despite a decline in sales figures within the industry sector, Boeing and Connexion made the decision to offer free service at the beginning of the last quarter in 2006. However, this was eventually discontinued by the start of 2007. Jim McNerney, Chairman, President, and CEO of Boeing, stated that a significant amount of time, resources, and technology had been invested into Connexion by Boeing over the past six years. Despite these efforts, the expected market for this service did not materialize. As a result, Connexion ceased to

exist as a subsidiary of Boeing but paved the way for another venture called Boeing Broadband Satcom Network (BBSN). BBSN aims to provide global Internet services to airlines excluding one industry. Although initially targeting commercial use and encountering failure in that sector, Boeing shifted its focus towards utilizing BBSN for military and government purposes instead. Originally designed for post-Cold War objectives, repurposing broadband capabilities to enhance homeland security seemed logical. Over time, however, the program has expanded beyond its initial mission. Initially awarded a $30 million contract by the United States Air Force,BBSN began expanding its global coverage while continuously improving upload and download speeds through advancements in satellite technology.

The Air Force required these enhancements in order to meet their rigorous operational requirements. The contract with Boeing has undergone four revisions already and is expected to result in substantial growth projections for the company.

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